Cited by 504Smoking Behavior and CessationSchool Health and Nursing EducationSubstance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes

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Effect of restrictions on smoking at home, at school, and in public places on teenage smoking: cross sectional study

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Wakefield, M. A·2000·BMJ

DOI 10.1136/bmj.321.7257.333PMC PMC27448

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Abstract

OBJECTIVE: To determine the relation between extent of restrictions on smoking at home, at school, and in public places and smoking uptake and smoking prevalence among school students. DESIGN: Cross sectional survey with merged records of extent of restrictions on smoking in public places. SETTING: United States. PARTICIPANTS: 17 287 high school students. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Five point scale of smoking uptake; 30 day smoking prevalence. RESULTS: More restrictive arrangements on smoking at home were associated with a greater likelihood of being in an earlier stage of smoking uptake (P<0.05) and a lower 30 day prevalence (odds ratio 0.79 (95% confidence interval 0.67 to 0.91), P<0.001). These findings applied even when parents were smokers. More pervasive restrictions on smoking in public places were associated with a higher probability of being in a earlier stage of smoking uptake (P<0.05) and lower 30 day prevalence (0.91 (0.83 to 0.99), P=0.03). School smoking bans were related to a greater likelihood of being in an earlier stage of smoking uptake (0.89 (0.85 to 0.99), P<0.05) and lower prevalence (0. 86 (0.77 to 0.94), P<0.001) only when the ban was strongly enforced, as measured by instances when teenagers perceived that most or all students obeyed the rule. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that restrictions on smoking at home, more extensive bans on smoking in public places, and enforced bans on smoking at school may reduce teenage smoking.

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“, 2008), but these policies can also reduce the risk of smoking among students (Lovato, Pullman, et al., 2010; Piontek et al., 2010; Sabiston et al., 2009; Wakefield et al., 2000).”
Background
Environment modifies the association between depression symptoms and smoking among adolescents.
Chaiton, M., & Zhang, B. (2007) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.21.3.420 · Cited by 6
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“Other influences include advertisements (Freeman et al., 2001), after-school activities, collateral consumption of alcohol, and restrictions on smoking at home and in the school (Pinilla et al., 2002; López et al., 1999; Dee, 1999; Wakefield et al., 2000).”
Background
The role of home smoking bans in limiting exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke in Hungary
Paulik, E., Maróti-Nagy, Á., Nagymajtényi, L., Rogers, T., & Easterling, D. V. (2012) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cys057 · Cited by 6
“A number of previous studies have found that smoke-free rules in homes and vehicles can reduce SHS exposure among children and non-smoking adults [16, 17, 25, 26], while also helping smokers to quit [17, 25] and reducing the risk of adolescents becoming smokers [16].”
Background
Research and Evaluation Unit
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Commentary: The global tobacco litigation initiative: An effort to protect developing countries from big tobacco
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Lessons Learned from Tobacco Control: A Multilevel Analysis of School Characteristics and Adolescent Physical Activity
Ishibashi, S.-L. W. (2007) · UWSpace (University of Waterloo) · Cited by 6
Tabagisme aux collèges publics de Casablanca
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Factors associated with the adoption of a smoking ban in Quebec households
Ouedraogo, É., Turcotte, F., Ashley, M. J., Brewster, J. M., & Ferrence, R. G. (2009) · Chronic diseases in Canada · doi:10.24095/hpcdp.29.3.05 · Cited by 5
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Evaluation of the Implementation of a 25-Year Outdoor School Ground Smoking Ban: A Qualitative Interview Study With Implications for Prevention Practise
Kvillemo, P., Feltmann, K., Elgán, T. H., & Gripenberg, J. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.628748 · Cited by 5
Prevalence of Smoking in Teenagers Male Undergraduate Students a Study of Karachi, Pakistan
Bushra, R., Aslam, N., Bano, U. K. N., Jamal, A., Baig, A. A. S. M. T., & Sherwani, S. K. (2014) · Cited by 5
A Response to the Critiques of Tobacco Sales and Tobacco Possession Laws
Jason, L. A., Pokorny, S. B., & Schoeny, M. E. (2002) · Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community · doi:10.1300/j005v24n01_07 · Cited by 5
“Several investigators have found that enforced school polices are associated with reduced smoking by youth (Pinilla et al., 2002; Wakefield et al., 2000), and youth possession laws could be coordinated to strengthen enforcement of these policies.”
Background
Kinderspezifische Tabakwerbung in Deutschland
Pumpe, K. (2002) · Pneumologie · doi:10.1055/s-2002-25072 · Cited by 5
Respiratory Medicine: An Asian Perspective
Ip, M., Chan-Yeung, M. M. W., Lam, W. K., & Zhong, N. (2005) · Project Muse (Johns Hopkins University) · Cited by 5
Systematic braiding of Smoke-Free Home SafeCare to address child maltreatment risk and secondhand smoke exposure: findings from a pilot study
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Effect of self-reported home smoking restriction on smoking initiation among adolescents in Taiwan: a prospective cohort study
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Rats choose high doses of nicotine in order to compensate for changes in its price and availability
Holmes, N. M., Pan, J., Davis, A., Panayi, M. C., & Clemens, K. J. (2018) · Addiction Biology · doi:10.1111/adb.12637 · Cited by 4
“These policies have been successful in reducing the uptake of smoking among adolescents (Wakefield et al. 2000; Bader et al. 2011; Dessaix et al. 2016; Johnston et al. 2016), and therefore the overall incidence of smoking (AIHW 2014; Australian Institute of Health and Welfare 2017).”
Background
Shampoo-Clay Heals Diaper Rash Faster Than Calendula Officinalis
Adib‐Hajbaghery, M., Mahmoudi, M., & Mashaiekhi, M. (2014) · Nursing and Midwifery Studies · doi:10.17795/nmsjournal14180 · Cited by 4
Tobacco cues in India: An ecological momentary assessment
Borzekowski, D. L. G., & Chen-Sankey, J. C. (2016) · Tobacco Induced Diseases · doi:10.1186/s12971-016-0081-z · Cited by 4
“A cross-sectional study found that smoking restrictions were related to lower smoking prevalence at home, public places and schools [22].”
Background
Youth Smoking Prevention Policy: Lessons Learned and Continuing Challenges
Bonnie, R. J., O’Connell, M. E., & UnderageDrinking, P. (2004) · Cited by 4
Racial/Ethnic Differences in Light of 100% Smoke-free State Laws: Evidence from Adults in the United States
Daley, A., Rahman, M., & Watson, B. (2020) · Population Health Management · doi:10.1089/pop.2020.0048 · Cited by 4
Factors Associated with Total Restrictions on Smoking at Work and at Home: A Study among Populations in Multiple US States and the US Virgin Islands
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A Brief History and Analysis of Health Promotion
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SmokerBeacon: Hybrid Real-Time Smoking Detection Using Object Detection and Gas Sensor
Harshavardhan, S., Upender, P., Ganesh, N., & Giftsy, S. (2025) · IEEE International Students' Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Science (SCEECS) · doi:10.1109/sceecs64059.2025.10941558 · Cited by 3
Parental perspectives on antismoking discussions with adolescents in rural African American households, May 2004-January 2005.
Butler, S., Kegler, M. C., & Escoffery, C. (2009) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 3
Public Health News Frames in North Carolina Newspaper Coverage of the 100% Tobacco-Free Schools Campaign? Sometimes
Morrison, S. D., Sutton, S. F., & Mebane, F. E. (2006) · North Carolina Medical Journal · doi:10.18043/ncm.67.4.255 · Cited by 3

Authors: Wakefield, M. A.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Chicago (US)
Corresponding author: Wakefield, M. A
ORCID: Wakefield, M. A
Venue: BMJ
Publisher: BMJ
Published: 2000-08-05
Volume: 321
Issue: 7257
Pages: 333-337
ISSN: 0959-8138 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1136/bmj.321.7257.333
PMC: PMC27448
OpenAlex: W1968649612
Cited by: 504
References: 46
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 12 · 2014: 20 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 23
FWCI: 14.12
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: bronze
doi.org
Locations: BMJ (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › School Health and Nursing Education
Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
Keywords: adolescent smoking, smoking restrictions, smoking bans, school smoking bans, household smoking, smoking in public places, smoking prevalence, smoking uptake, parental smoking, adolescents
MeSH terms: Smoking Prevention, Adolescent, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Humans, Male, Motivation, Social Control Policies, Public Health, School Health Services, Smoking, Social Control, Informal, Social Environment, Tobacco Smoke Pollution, United States, Prevalence

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Effect of restrictions on smoking at home, at school, and in public places on teenage smoking: cross sectional study

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