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Cited by 62Policing Practices and PerceptionsPsychiatric care and mental health servicesCriminal Justice and Corrections Analysis

Interagency collaboration models for people with mental ill health in contact with the police: a systematic scoping review

Open access
Parker, Adwoa, Scantlebury, Arabella, Booth, Alison, MacBryde, Jillian Catherine, Scott, William J, Wright, Kath, McDaid, Catriona·2018·BMJ Open
DOI 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019312PMC PMC5875664
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Abstract

Objective: To identify existing evidence on interagency collaboration between law enforcement, emergency services, statutory services and third sector agencies regarding people with mental ill health. Design: Systematic scoping review. Scoping reviews map particular research areas to identify research gaps. Data sources and eligibility: ASSIA, CENTRAL, the Cochrane Library databases, Criminal Justice Abstracts, ERIC, Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PROSPERO and Social Care Online and Social Sciences Citation Index were searched up to 2017, as were grey literature and hand searches. Eligible articles were empirical evaluations or descriptions of models of interagency collaboration between the police and other agencies. Study appraisal and synthesis: Screening and data extraction were undertaken independently by two researchers. Arksey’s framework was used to collate and map included studies. Results: One hundred and twenty-five studies were included. The majority of articles were of descriptions of models (28%), mixed methods evaluations of models (18%) and single service evaluations (14%). The most frequently reported outcomes (52%) were ‘organisational or service level outcomes’ (eg, arrest rates). Most articles (53%) focused on adults with mental ill health, whereas others focused on adult offenders with mental ill health (17.4%). Thirteen models of interagency collaboration were described, each involving between 2 and 13 agencies. Frequently reported models were ‘prearrest diversion’ of people with mental ill health (34%), ‘coresponse’ involving joint response by police officers paired with mental health professionals (28.6%) and ‘jail diversion’ following arrest (23.8%). Conclusions: We identified 13 different interagency collaboration models catering for a range of mental health-related interactions. All but one of these models involved the police and mental health services or professionals. Several models have sufficient literature to warrant full systematic reviews of their effectiveness, whereas others need robust evaluation, by randomised controlled trial where appropriate. Future evaluations should focus on health-related outcomes and the impact on key stakeholders.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic scoping review mapped 125 studies and identified 13 interagency collaboration models between police and other agencies for people with mental ill health. Most evidence comprised descriptions or non-randomised evaluations, with organisational outcomes most common and little evidence on health outcomes or effectiveness.

Key findings

  • The review included 125 studies from eight countries; most were from the USA (45%) and UK (29%).
  • Thirteen interagency collaboration models were identified, each involving between 2 and 13 agencies; the most frequently reported were prearrest diversion (43 articles; 34%), coresponse (36 articles; 28.6%) and postbooking jail diversion (30 articles; 23.8%).
  • The most frequently reported outcomes were organisational or service-level outcomes, such as arrest and diversion rates (66 studies; 52%); service user mental health outcomes were assessed in only 7 studies (5.5%).
  • Study designs were mainly descriptions of models (35 studies; 28%), mixed methods evaluations (23; 18.4%) and service evaluations (18; 14.4%); there were no randomised controlled trials.

Methods

  • Systematic scoping review following Arksey’s framework, with searches of ASSIA, CENTRAL, Cochrane Library databases, Criminal Justice Abstracts, ERIC, Embase, MEDLINE, PsycINFO, PROSPERO, Social Care Online and Social Sciences Citation Index up to March 2017, plus grey literature and hand searches.
  • Eligible articles were empirical evaluations or descriptions of models of interagency collaboration between police and other organisations for people of any age appearing to have mental disorder, mental vulnerability or learning disability; studies in prison settings, non-English studies, substance-abuse-only collaborations and collaborations without police were excluded.
  • Screening and data extraction were undertaken independently by two researchers; one researcher extracted and classified data, checked by a second researcher, and findings were mapped rather than synthesised, with no quality assessment.

Limitations

  • The authors state that the lack of study quality assessment and synthesis means they could not conclude whether individual models were effective.
  • The authors note that identifying all evidence was difficult because relevant studies are spread across disciplines and “interagency” is a nebulous concept with multiple definitions; model identification inevitably had a subjective component.
  • The text makes evident that no randomised controlled trials were identified, most studies used designs unlikely to provide robust effectiveness evidence, and only 5.5% assessed service user mental health outcomes.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019312

Cites

132 of 132 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

8 of 39 cited sources checked · 4 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Findingcitation

    In the community-care networks service integration model, a network coordinator received reports from network partners about any person of concern, gathered relevant information, established a plan of action and monitored implementation.

    “An example of a service integration model is the ‘community-care networks’.54 A network coordinator (often community psychiatric nurse) received reports from network partners about any person of concern and gathered relevant information, established a plan of action and monitored implementation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] source

      The Methods passage describes reports from network partners, a plan of action, and a coordinator who monitors its implementation. It says network participants gather the information, however, and does not specify that the coordinator draws up the plan; those two tasks are attributed more specifically to the coordinator in the claim than the source supports. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.
  • Findingcitation

    A variant of the colocation model involved a dedicated police officer being based in an office within a mental health hospital.

    “Another variant of the colocation model involved a dedicated police officer being based in an office within a mental health hospital; an example of this is the ‘Police Liaison Forum’.77”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [77] source

      The St Andrew’s scheme section says a dedicated police officer had primary duties within the hospital and an office on site. It also describes a Police Liaison Forum, but as an earlier group that developed a joint policy; the dedicated officer was a subsequent solution, not the forum itself. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.
  • Findingcitation

    Street Triage is a UK-based coresponse model where a dedicated police officer and psychiatric nurse together attend the scene of incidents requiring support for mental health needs.

    “An example of this model is the UK-based ‘Street Triage’,68 70 89 where a dedicated police officer and psychiatric nurse together attend the scene of incidents requiring support for mental health needs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [68] Heslin, 2016, Decision analytic model exploring the cost and cost-offset implications of street triage, BMJ Open source
    • cites [70] Irvine A , Allen L , Webber M . Evaluation of the Scarborough, Whitby and Ryedale Street Triage Service. York: University of York, 2015.

      Section 1.2 describes UK Street Triage as a partnership between mental health nurses and police officers, and says some schemes place them together in a mobile unit. But Section 3.4 says the evaluated Scarborough, Whitby and Ryedale service did not assign an officer to the triage team for a full shift; officers usually arrived before the team. The dedicated pair attending together describes some other schemes, not this service or UK Street Triage generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [89] Thames Valley Police. Oxfordshire Mental Health Street Triage Pilot. Oxfordshire, 2015.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.
  • Findingreasoning

    The area most commonly covered was the relationship between the police and mental health services.

    “The area most commonly covered was the relationship between the police and mental health services; unsurprising as this is a critical interface for the police service.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    In coresponse models, a shared protocol paired specially trained police officers with mental health professionals to attend police call-outs involving people with mental ill health.

    “In this model, a shared protocol paired specially trained police officers with mental health professionals to attend police call-outs involving people with mental ill health.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 45
  • May combine two claims. 24

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Individuals with mental ill health are disproportionally more likely to be arrested and enter the criminal justice system.

    “individuals with mental ill health are disproportionally more likely to be arrested and enter the criminal justice system.157 158”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [157] source

      In “Outcomes of Police Interventions” (page unavailable), the paper reports that mental illness was associated with 2.04 times the odds of arrest when the severity of the incident was held constant. But the overall arrest rates—4.0% versus 3.2%—did not differ significantly. The claim omits that qualification and extends a finding about police encounters to entry into the criminal justice system more generally. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [158] McManus S , Meltzer H , Brugha T , et al . Adult psychiatric morbidity in England 2007: results of a household survey. London: The NHS Information Centre for health and social care, 2009.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    An upcoming systematic review is focusing on the effectiveness of liaison and diversion, Street Triage and specialist staff embedded in police control rooms.

    “some of this research is already underway with an upcoming systematic review focusing on the effectiveness of liaison and diversion, Street Triage and specialist staff embedded in police control rooms.162”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [162] Kane, 2017, Effectiveness of current policing-related mental health interventions in England and Wales and Crisis Intervention Teams as a future potential model: a systematic review, Syst Rev source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Existing reviews have focused on information-sharing within mental health services or interagency working in general rather than law enforcement agencies.

    “One review focused on guidance and research in the UK related to information-sharing practices within mental health services and the organisations they work in partnership with.20 Other reviews have focused on interagency working in general rather than law enforcement agencies.11 12 21 22”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [20] Jenkins K . Information-sharing in mental health care provision: a review, 2014.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [11] Oliver C , Mooney A , Statham J . Integrated working: a review of the evidence. London: University of London, 2010.
    • cites [12] Atkinson M , Jones M , Lamont E . Multi-agency working and its implications for practice. Reading: CFBT Education Trust, 2007.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    MAPPA aims to protect the public from harm by sexual and violent offenders, who may have mental ill health.

    “An example is the Multi-Agency Public Protection Arrangements (MAPPA) which aims to protect the public from harm by sexual and violent offenders, who may have mental ill health.84”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [84] Penny, 2012, Decisions on disclosure to third parties made at MAPP meetings: opinions and practice, Psychiatrist source
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The reported purpose of prearrest diversion models was to equip police officers to better manage situations involving people with mental health, substance abuse and/or homelessness problems and to offer treatment as an alternative to arrest.

    “The reported purpose of prearrest diversion models was to equip police officers to better manage situations involving people with mental health, substance abuse and/or homelessness problems who became involved with the police and to offer treatment as an alternative to arrest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    We highlight 'joint investigation training' or 'special protective' models as efforts that focus on people with mental illness as victims of crime or as vulnerable witnesses.

    “For example, we highlight ‘joint investigation training’ or ‘special protective’ models as efforts that focus on people with mental illness as victims of crime or as vulnerable witnesses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Comprehensive systems models typically include policy reform, multisystems coordination and changes to practice at multiple levels.

    “Comprehensive systems models typically include policy reform, multisystems coordination and changes to practice at multiple levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The advice in the consultation model was typically delivered over the telephone and aimed to maximise resources provided by a specialist team and to assess and prevent criminal behaviour, protect life, arrest the perpetrator and protect property.

    “Typically, the advice was delivered over the telephone and generally aimed to maximise the resources provided by a specialist team and to assess and prevent criminal behaviour, protect life, arrest the perpetrator and protect property.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The studies were from eight countries: Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Ireland, Netherlands, UK and USA.

    “The studies were from eight countries: Australia,27–41 Canada,42–50 Denmark,51 France,52 Ireland,53 Netherlands,54 UK55–91 and USA92–148; two multinational studies were undertaken in Australia, Canada and the USA.110 149”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The Prime Time Project involves a collaborative alliance with local police officers to involve young people with mental ill health who have been detained by the police and involves activities in the community training in job skills and other aspects of managing daily life.

    “The ‘Prime Time Project’138 involves a collaborative alliance with local police officers to involve young people with mental ill health who have been detained by the police and involves activities in the community training in job skills and other aspects of managing daily life.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [138] Trupin EW , Selby PM , McCauley E , et al . The Prime Time Project: Developing an Intensive Community-Based Intervention for Youth in the Juvenile Justice System. ‎Dublin‎, Ohio, US: WorldCat member library, 1996.
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Speaking up for justice was a collaboration between police, courts, hospitals and other agencies aimed at improving how vulnerable and intimidated witnesses were treated.

    “An example of this was ‘speaking up for justice’,56 a collaboration between the police, the courts, hospitals and other agencies aimed at improving how vulnerable and intimidated witnesses were treated.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [56] Burton M , Evans R , Sanders A . Are special measures for vulnerable & intimidated witnesses working? Evidence from the criminal justice agencies. London: Home Office, 2006.
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The reported aims of information sharing models were to improve support to people with mental ill health, foster better relations between agencies and between police and people with mental ill health, identify hard-to-find at risk people and protect the public from offenders with mental ill health.

    “The reported aims of information models were to improve support to people with mental ill health, foster better relations between agencies and between the police and people with mental ill health, identify hard-to-find at risk people with mental ill health and protect the public from offenders with mental ill health.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Prearrest diversion models involve police officers with special mental health training serving as first-line police response to mental health crises and acting as liaisons to the formal mental health system.

    “Prearrest diversion models are described as involving police officers who had special mental health training, serving as the first-line police response to mental health crises in the community and acting as liaisons to the formal mental health system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Court diversion models diverted offenders from prosecution into a specialised community-based service following arrest while initially detained, during initial hearings, or while assisted by pretrial services.

    “Offenders were ‘diverted’ from prosecution and into a specialised community-based service. Court diversion occurred following arrest while the individual was initially detained, during initial hearings, or while being assisted by pretrial services to offer community-based alternatives to standard prosecution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Special protective measures aimed to identify and protect people with mental ill health, learning disabilities and other vulnerable people.

    “Three articles from the UK56 and USA122 129 focused on ‘special protective measures’, with the reported aim of identifying and protecting people with mental ill health, learning disabilities and other vulnerable people.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    There have been few systematic reviews of interagency collaboration models involving the police, with no current registered ongoing review.

    “There have been few systematic reviews of interagency collaboration models involving the police, with no current registered ongoing review; so the impacts, particularly health-related, of such models remain unclear.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The majority of studies were from the USA (45%) and the UK (29%).

    “The majority of studies were from the USA (45%) and the UK (29%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    The aim of the integrated model was to provide continuity, familiarity and support at an early stage throughout the health service to facilitate trust and reduce distress.

    “The aim was to provide continuity, familiarity and support at an early stage throughout the health service to facilitate trust and reduce distress.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Postbooking jail diversion is a multiagency liaison scheme comprising rapid screening and mental health assessment of people arrested at the earliest point of contact with the criminal justice system, plus a mechanism for appropriate referral or diversion to health, treatment, social and community services.

    “This is a multiagency liaison scheme, comprising a rapid screening and mental health assessment of people arrested at the earliest point of contact with the criminal justice system, plus a mechanism for appropriate referral or diversion to health, treatment, social and community services.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The majority of included articles were descriptions of models (28%), mixed methods evaluations of models (18%) and single service evaluations (14%).

    “The majority of articles were of descriptions of models (28%), mixed methods evaluations of models (18%) and single service evaluations (14%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The reported aims of coresponse models were to provide assistance to people in mental health crisis and prevent their unnecessary incarceration or hospitalisation.

    “The reported aims were to provide assistance to people in mental health crisis and prevent their unnecessary incarceration or hospitalisation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In information sharing agreement models, information about people with mental ill health was shared between police and other agencies or between the individual and the police and other agencies.

    “In this model, information about people with mental ill health was shared between police and other agencies or between the individual with mental ill health and the police and other agencies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Service integration models aimed to integrate services by creating a network to bridge gaps between services, decrease arrest, decrease violence, improve educational attendance and completion and reduce symptoms of mental illness and psychological distress.

    “The aims of these models were to integrate services by creating a network to bridge gaps between services, decrease arrest, decrease violence, improve educational attendance and completion and reduce symptoms of mental illness and psychological distress.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Project SOBEIT included six elements: safe school environment; alcohol and other drug and violence prevention and early intervention programmes; school and community mental health preventive and treatment intervention services; early childhood psychosocial and emotional development programmes; educational reform; and safe school policies.

    “An example was Project SOBEIT,118 which included six elements: (1) safe school environment, (2) alcohol and other drug and violence prevention and early intervention programmes, (3) school and community mental health preventive and treatment intervention services, (4) early childhood psychosocial and emotional development programmes, (5) educational reform and (6) safe school policies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [118] Lacey CH . Collaborative Partnerships and School Change: Evaluating Project SOBEIT: Online Submission: ERIC, 2006.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The 'consultation model' and 'joint investigation training' only involved the police and mental health services.

    “The ‘consultation model’ and ‘joint investigation training’ only involved the police and mental health services; the remaining models were highly multidisciplinary involving a range of organisations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingreasoning

    Our review is broader and considers interagency collaboration models outside the criminal justice system.

    “Our review is broader and considers interagency collaboration models outside the criminal justice system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Liaison and diversion identifies and supports people with mental ill health, learning difficulties and other vulnerabilities in police stations and courts.

    “An example of such a service is ‘liaison and diversion’, which identifies and supports people with mental ill health, learning difficulties and other vulnerabilities in police stations and courts.60 151”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [60] Earl, 2015, Neighbourhood outreach: a novel approach to Liaison and Diversion, J Forens Psychiatry Psychol source
    • cites [151] Durcan G . The Bradley report five years on: an independent review of progress to date and priorities for further development. London: Centre for Mental Health, 2014.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Two multinational studies were undertaken in Australia, Canada and the USA.

    “The studies were from eight countries: Australia,27–41 Canada,42–50 Denmark,51 France,52 Ireland,53 Netherlands,54 UK55–91 and USA92–148; two multinational studies were undertaken in Australia, Canada and the USA.110 149”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [110] source
    • cites [149] Crisp AP . Understanding Best Practice: The Emergency Response to Mental Illness-An Exploratory Report. London: Winston Churchill Memorial Trust, 2015.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Re-entry programmes aimed to assist individuals with mental illness to reintegrate into the community, including institutional-based and community-based programmes serving individuals with mental illness following release from prison or hospitalisation.

    “Two articles from the USA127 138 reported on ‘re-entry’ programmes, which aimed to assist individuals with mental illness to reintegrate into the community. This included institutional-based and community-based programmes serving individuals with mental illness following release from prison or hospitalisation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Joint investigation training involved joint mental health training for police, social workers, mental health and adult protection services aimed at improving multiagency adult protection investigations and promoting collaborative working to support vulnerable adults.

    “This model involved joint mental health training for the police, social workers, mental health and adult protection services aimed at improving multiagency adult protection investigations and promoting collaborative working to support vulnerable adults.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    CIT is a police-based first-responder programme for people in mental health crisis who come into contact with the police and provides police-based crisis intervention training.

    “CIT is a police-based first-responder programme for people in mental health crisis who come into contact with the police and provides police-based crisis intervention training.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A disproportionate number of people with mental ill health come into contact with police, who are often the first public service to interact with such individuals.

    “A disproportionate number of people with mental ill health come into contact with police, who are often the first public service to interact with such individuals.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] House of Commons Home Affairs Committee. Policing and mental health: Eleventh Report of Session 2014–15. London: The Stationery Office Limited, 2015.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Legislative and policy changes and the speed with which they are implemented over time and in different jurisdictions can influence the availability and even preferences for certain interagency collaboration models.

    “Furthermore, legislative and policy changes and the speed with which they are implemented over time and in different jurisdictions can influence the availability and even preferences for certain models.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There is significant political pressure on agencies to collaborate.

    “While there is significant political pressure on agencies to collaborate,18 152 160”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [18] House of Commons Home Affairs Committee. Policing and mental health: Eleventh Report of Session 2014–15. London: The Stationery Office Limited, 2015.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [152] Department of Health. Mental Health Act 1983: Code of Practice. Norwich: The Stationery Office, 2015.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [160] Department of Health and Concordat signatories. Mental Health Crisis Care Concordat: Improving outcomes for people experiencing mental health crisis. London: HM Government, 2014.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The review identified other areas which have highlighted the need for robust evaluation by RCT where appropriate.

    “We have also identified other areas which have highlighted the need for robust evaluation by RCT where appropriate.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The identification of the models inevitably has a subjective component.

    “However, the identification of the models inevitably has a subjective component.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The protocol was made publicly available a priori via the project website.

    “The protocol was made publicly available a priori via our project website.25”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [25] Hughes-Morley A , Clarke A , MacBryde J , et al . What models or mechanisms for inter-agency collaboration between the police or law enforcement and other statutory agencies for people with mental problems have been evaluated, and what evidence is available on their effectiveness? A systematic scoping review. 2016 http://connectebp.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Inter-Agency-Scoping-Review-Protocol-v1-05.09.2016.pdf (accessed 17 Mar 2017).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The review undertook rigorous searches for available literature, including grey literature, led by an information specialist with input from the team, including a police officer.

    “We undertook rigorous searches for the available literature, including grey literature, led by an information specialist with input from the team, including a police officer.”
    • Also stated in: § Strengths and limitations · plain
      “To address these issues, the search strategy was extensive and thorough and developed by an information specialist with input from members of the team including a police officer.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In the UK, changes in legislation such as the 2017 Police and Crime Act, which extends police powers under the Mental Health Act, are likely to impact on the adoption of certain interagency collaboration models.

    “in the UK, changes in legislation such as the 2017 Police and Crime Act,161 which extends police powers under the Mental Health Act, are likely to impact on the adoption of certain models.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [161] UK Crown. Policing and Crime Act 2017. London: The Stationery Office, 2017.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The review did not evaluate the risk of bias in the included studies.

    “Our review did not evaluate the risk of bias in the included studies, but in general, the study designs used are unlikely to provide robust evidence about effectiveness: there were no randomised controlled trials (RCTs).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    We have mitigated against subjectivity as far as possible through involvement of two researchers in the mapping as well as providing examples and descriptions of each model.

    “We have mitigated against this as far as possible through involvement of two researchers in the mapping as well as a providing examples and descriptions of each model.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Sequential Intercept Model is a framework for conceptualising the range of community-based alternatives for people with mental ill health in contact with the criminal justice system.

    “The Sequential Intercept Model is a framework for conceptualising the range of community-based alternatives for people with mental ill health in contact with the criminal justice system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [156] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    One researcher extracted data and classified included studies, and this was checked by a second researcher.

    “One researcher extracted data and classified the included studies, and this was checked by a second researcher.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mental ill health is often unrecognised and poorly handled by the police, meaning many people end up incarcerated rather than receiving appropriate treatment.

    “However, mental ill health is often unrecognised and poorly handled by the police, meaning that many people end up incarcerated rather than receiving appropriate treatment.19”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [19] Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health. Diversion: A better way for criminal justice and mental health. London: Nuffield Press, 2009.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The model suggests a series of 'points of interception' at which interventions can be targeted to prevent individuals from entering or penetrating deeper into the criminal justice system.

    “The model suggests a series of ‘points of interception’ at which interventions can be targeted to prevent individuals from entering or penetrating deeper into the criminal justice system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [156] source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    In general, the study designs used are unlikely to provide robust evidence about effectiveness: there were no randomised controlled trials (RCTs).

    “Our review did not evaluate the risk of bias in the included studies, but in general, the study designs used are unlikely to provide robust evidence about effectiveness: there were no randomised controlled trials (RCTs).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Such a lack of evidence has been found in other fields assessing the evidence for interagency models.

    “Such a lack of evidence has been found in other fields assessing the evidence for interagency models.155”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155] Macvean M , Humphreys C , Healey L , et al . The PATRICIA Project: PAThways and Research in Collaborative Inter-Agency working: State of knowledge paper Sydney. Australia: ANROWS Landscapes, 2015.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Our categorisation of the various interagency models, such as 'prearrest diversion', 'postbooking diversion' and 'court diversion', fits with the Sequential Intercept Model.

    “Our categorisation of the various interagency models, such as ‘prearrest diversion’, ‘postbooking diversion’ and ‘court diversion’, fits with the Sequential Intercept Model.156”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [156] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Between 20% and 45% of police time is spent engaging with people experiencing mental ill health, as victims, witnesses or offenders.

    “Between 20% and 45% of police time is spent engaging with people experiencing mental ill health, as victims, witnesses or offenders.18”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18] House of Commons Home Affairs Committee. Policing and mental health: Eleventh Report of Session 2014–15. London: The Stationery Office Limited, 2015.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Data extraction forms were developed and piloted.

    “Data extraction forms were developed and piloted.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    One of the key drivers for interagency collaboration is to streamline services and improve efficiency.

    “since one of the key drivers for interagency collaboration is to streamline services and improve efficiency160”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [160] Department of Health and Concordat signatories. Mental Health Crisis Care Concordat: Improving outcomes for people experiencing mental health crisis. London: HM Government, 2014.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    Not all the interagency collaboration models may be distinctive enough to make an RCT appropriate or feasible.

    “While not all the models may be distinctive enough to make an RCT appropriate or feasible”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Two reviewers independently undertook study selection, and data extraction and study coding was checked by a second researcher.

    “Two reviewers independently undertook study selection, and the data extraction and study coding was checked by a second researcher to ensure robustness in these processes.”
    • Also stated in: § Study selection and data extraction · plain
      “Study selection was undertaken independently by two researchers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    There are sufficient studies identified to justify development of focused questions for systematic review.

    “There are sufficient studies identified to justify development of focused questions for systematic review.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The broad scope has facilitated mapping of the evidence available on interagency collaboration models between the police and other agencies.

    “A strength of our review is that the broad scope has facilitated mapping of the evidence available on interagency collaboration models between the police and other agencies, to appropriately manage people with apparent mental problems who come into contact with the police.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    We assigned each study to a methodological grouping based on the description of the methods used, which may or may not have matched with the author's categorisation of the study.

    “We assigned each study to a methodological grouping based on the description of the methods used, which may or may not have matched with the author’s categorisation of the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Searches were comprehensive and broadly combined domain terms and their associations for 'interagency' and 'police' and 'mental health'.

    “Searches were comprehensive and broadly combined domain terms and their associations for ‘interagency’ and ‘police’ and ‘mental health’.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
57 of 57

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The included primary studies accurately describe the interagency collaboration models they report.

    “The terminologies used to describe the different models of interagency collaboration were directly derived from the primary papers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Models such as Street Triage and CIT are routinely implemented within policing.

    “models such as Street Triage and CIT are now routinely implemented within policing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Interagency collaboration models are complex interventions involving several interactive components and agencies.

    “Interagency collaboration models are complex interventions involving several interactive components and agencies.”
3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Countries attributed to the same multinational studies differ

    Minor

    The same two references are described first as involving Australia, Canada and the USA, then as involving Australia, Canada and the UK.

  • Joint investigation training includes agencies said to be absent

    Minor

    The overview says joint investigation training involved only police and mental health services, but its detailed description also names social workers and adult protection services.

  • Count of children exposed to or victimised by violence differs

    Minor

    The prose assigns four articles to children and youth exposed to or victimised by violence, whereas the matching Table 3 category contains one study.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 14

  1. Sainsbury Centre for Mental Health. Diversion: A better way for criminal justice and mental health. London: Nuffield Press, 2009.
  2. Jenkins K . Information-sharing in mental health care provision: a review, 2014.
  3. Hughes-Morley A , Clarke A , MacBryde J , et al . What models or mechanisms for inter-agency collaboration between the police or law enforcement and other statutory agencies for people with mental problems have been evaluated, and what evidence is available on their effectiveness? A systematic scoping review. 2016 http://connectebp.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Inter-Agency-Scoping-Review-Protocol-v1-05.09.2016.pdf (accessed 17 Mar 2017).
  4. Baess E . Integrated Mobile Crisis Response Team (IMCRT): Review of pairing police with mental health outreach services. Victoria, BC: Vancouver Island Health Authority, 2005.
  5. De Caire, 2013, A wrap-around social service solution, Blue Line Magazine, 25, 14
  6. Marlow, 2003, Achieving best evidence., LLais Magazine, 68, 3
  7. McGilloway, 2004, Mental illness in the UK criminal justice system: A police liaison scheme for Mentally Disordered Offenders in Belfast, J Ment Health, 13, 263, 10.1080/09638230410001700899 · DOI
  8. 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4<407::AID-BSL318>3.0.CO;2-W · DOI
  9. Crutcher, 2011, The Early Notification Program, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 80, 12
  10. 10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4<455::AID-BSL321>3.0.CO;2-G · DOI
  11. Saunders, 2006, Missing and Wandering Children with Autism and Down Syndrome: The Project Lifesaver Partnership Meets the Challenge, Sheriff, 58, 26
  12. Sharp, 2009, Theoretical and Practical Application of Loose Coupling: A Study of Criminal Justice Agencies in the State of Florida, SWJCJ, 6, 45
  13. Wellborn, 1999, Responding to individuals with mental illness, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 68, 6
  14. Durcan G . The Bradley report five years on: an independent review of progress to date and priorities for further development. London: Centre for Mental Health, 2014.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Parker, A., Scantlebury, A., Booth, A., MacBryde, J. C., Scott, W. J., Wright, K., & McDaid, C.
Affiliations
  • University of York (GB)
  • Newcastle University (GB)
  • North Yorkshire Police, Newby Wiske Hall, Northallerton, UK
Corresponding author
Parker, Adwoa
ORCID
Venue
BMJ Open
Publisher
BMJ
Published
2018-03
Volume
8
Issue
3
Pages
e019312
ISSN
2044-6055 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019312
PMC
PMC5875664
OpenAlex
W2795107470
Semantic Scholar
4519bdcb8f5613ffe8ce3fd03acce382e434b6f3
Cited by
62
References
132
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 2
FWCI
11.74
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by-nc
Locations
  • BMJ Open (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • White Rose Research Online (University of Leeds, The University of Sheffield, University of York) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
  • Strathprints: The University of Strathclyde institutional repository (University of Strathclyde) (acceptedVersion)
  • Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity) (cc-by-nc)
Funders
  • Home Office
  • Higher Education Funding Council for England
  • College of Policing
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychiatric care and mental health services
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
Keywords
inter-agency cooperation, mental illness, police, jail diversion, adult offenders, emergency services, statutory services, arrest rates, service evaluation
MeSH terms
Mental Disorders, Cooperative Behavior, Health Personnel, Humans, Mental Health, Mental Health Services, Police, Law Enforcement

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-28.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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