Urban built environment and depression: A multilevel analysis
Open accessAbstract
Study objective: To assess the relations between characteristics of the neighbourhood internal and external built environment and past six month and lifetime depression. Design and setting: Depression and sociodemographic information were assessed in a cross sectional survey of residents of New York City (NYC). All respondents were geocoded to neighbourhood of residence. Data on the quality of the built environment in 59 NYC neighbourhoods were collected from the United Status census, the New York City housing and vacancy survey, and the fiscal 2002 New York City mayor’s management report. Main results: Among 1355 respondents, residence in neighbourhoods characterised by a poor quality built environment was associated with greater individual likelihood of past six month and lifetime depression in multilevel models adjusting for individual age, race/ethnicity, sex, and income and for neighbourhood level income. In adjusted models, persons living in neighbourhoods characterised by poorer features of the built environment were 29%–58% more likely to report past six month depression and 36%–64% more likely to report lifetime depression than respondents living in neighbourhoods characterised by better features of the built environment. Conclusions: Living in neighbourhoods characterised by a poor quality built environment is associated with a greater likelihood of depression. Future prospective work designed to assess potential mechanisms underlying these associations may guide public health and urban planning efforts aimed at improving population mental health.
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Urban domestic gardens (XI): variation in urban wildlife gardening in the United Kingdom
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“Ulrich 1984; Dunnett and Quasim 2000; Takano et al. 2002; CABE Space 2004; Galea et al. 2005 ); (b) urban economies, through a diverse array of impacts, including on house prices, the costs of heating and cooling buildings, and the ease of attracting businesses and employees (e.g.”
BackgroundHousing stress and mental health of migrant populations in urban China
Li, J., & Liu, Z. (2018) · Cities · doi:10.1016/j.cities.2018.04.006 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“community social control and leads to the perception of a residential environment as dangerous and threatening (Matheson et al., 2006; Galea et al., 2005).”
BackgroundMair, C., Roux, A. V. D., Shen, M., Shea, S., Seeman, T., Echeverría, S. E., & O’Meara, E. S. (2008) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2008.10.002 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“The use of depressive symptoms as opposed to a clinical depression measure (as used in some prior work) (1, 17, 41, 49) may also have affected our ability to detect longitudinal associations.”
BackgroundMethodKnight, K. R., Lopez, A. M., Comfort, M., Shumway, M., Cohen, J., & Riley, E. D. (2014) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2013.10.011 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
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“A few studies have focused on built and social environments and their relationship with older adult mental health (Galea et al., 2005) and young adults’ quality of life (Xiong & Zhang, 2016).”
BackgroundSchootman, M., Andresen, E. M., Wolinsky, F. D., Malmstrom, T. K., Miller, J. P., Yan, Y., & Miller, D. K. (2007) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwm190 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“Second, psychosocial factors such as depression, increased stress, lower social support, and poor mental health status may also mediate the association since they are associated with the risk of developing diabetes (20–24) and also with neighborhood and housing conditions (25, 26).”
BackgroundNeighborhood smoking norms modify the relation between collective efficacy and smoking behavior
Ahern, J., Galea, S., Hubbard, A., & Syme, S. L. (2008) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2008.09.012 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
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“Associations have been found between psychological wellbeing and housing structural attributes [1-3], dwelling level architectural features [4,5], observable neighbourhood environmental quality [6,7], access to facilities and green space [8-10], and neighbourhood walkability [11,12].”
BackgroundUrban environments and human health: current trends and future directions
Sarkar, C., & Webster, C. J. (2017) · Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability · doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2017.06.001 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
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“In recent research, social contextual conditions such as underemployment [92–97], inadequate housing [98–101], and food insecurity [102–109] figure as important risk factors in depression.”
BackgroundA brief review on the mental health for select elements of the built environment
Beemer, C. J., Stearns‐Yoder, K. A., Schuldt, S., Kinney, K. A., Lowry, C. A., Postolache, T. T., Brenner, L. A., & Hoisington, A. J. (2019) · Indoor and Built Environment · doi:10.1177/1420326x19889653 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
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The need for the “new health geography” in epidemiologic studies of environment and health
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“Moreover, public health research attention to the physical and mental health consequences of built environments has grown tremendously of late (Frumkin, 2005;Galea et al., 2005).”
BackgroundQuality of Life, Physical Activity, and Built Environment Characteristics Among Colombian Adults
Sarmiento, O. L., Schmid, T. L., Parra, D. C., del Castillo, A. D., Gómez, L. F., Pratt, M., Jacoby, E., Pinzón, J. D., & Duperly, J. (2010) · Journal of Physical Activity and Health · doi:10.1123/jpah.7.s2.s181 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Noise Levels Associated with Urban Land Use
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“, parks, trails) and negatively (obesity, injuries, stress) to a variety of health outcomes.(3,4) Increasing urbanization has been linked to a rise in the prevalence of health disparities, as well as a growing culture of sedentary living,”
BackgroundCaron, J., Fleury, M., Perreault, M., Crocker, A. G., Tremblay, J., Tousignant, M., Kestens, Y., Cargo, M., & Daniel, M. (2012) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-12-183 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Many studies have shown that the physical characteristics of neighbourhoods have an impact on the mental health of its citizens [11,12].”
BackgroundSmit, W., Lannoy, A. D., Dover, R. V. H., Lambert, E. V., Levitt, N. S., & Watson, V. (2016) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.04.006 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“There is a body of work that suggests that well-maintained areas with legible planning layouts and access to green space seem to be more conducive to good mental health (Evans, 2003; Galea et al., 2005; Sullivan and Chang, 2011).”
Whiteman, A., Loaiza, J. R., Yee, D. A., Poh, K. C., Watkins, A. S., Lucas, K. J., Rapp, T., Kline, L., Ahmed, A., Chen, S., et al. (2020) · One Health · doi:10.1016/j.onehlt.2020.100188 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Cross-sectional associations between residential environmental exposures and cardiovascular diseases
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“[42] also found that residing in a neighbourhood characterized by poor quality built environment (i.”
BackgroundBuilt Environment and Depression in Low-Income African Americans and Whites
James, P., Hart, J. E., Banay, R. F., Laden, F., & Signorello, L. B. (2016) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2016.08.022 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
The Biopsycho‐ecological Paradigm: A Foundational Theory for Medicine
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“, high rates of obesity, mental illness, and respiratory problems) [54-61].”
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Mental health effects of perceived living environment and neighborhood safety in urbanizing China
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A deep architecture for depression detection using posting, behavior, and living environment data
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“For example, Galea and colleagues study found that living in a neighbourhood characterised by a poor quality built environment was associated with a greater likelihood of depression [24].”
BackgroundResultChen, J., Chen, S., & Landry, P. F. (2015) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph120809012 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Urban living, then, has both positive and negative consequences for individuals’ mental health: cities usually provide superior health-care facilities but environmental pollution and unhealthy lifestyles contribute to deteriorating health status [11–16].”
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“For example, Galeas et al. (2005) found that living in neighborhoods characterized by a poor quality built environment is associated with a greater likelihood of depression among residents of New York City.”
BackgroundMental Health and the Built Environment
SULLIVAN, W. C., & Chang, C. (2011) · Island Press/Center for Resource Economics eBooks · doi:10.5822/978-1-61091-036-1_7 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“Living in a neighborhood characterized by a poorquality built environment has been shown to be associated with greater individual likelihood of depression during the previous six months and with lifetime depression (Galea et al. 2005).”
BackgroundGary‐Webb, T. L., Baptiste-Roberts, K., Pham, L. D., Wesche, J., Patricio, J., Pi-Sunyer, X., Brown, A. F., Jones‐Corneille, L. R., & Brancati, F. L. (2011) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-11-349 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“Most previous studies have examined the perception of neighborhood problems with depression, anxiety, and health status [2-7], with only a few using objective measures of the neighborhood environment [8].”
BackgroundHealthy Cities of Tomorrow: the Case for Large Scale Built Environment–Health Studies
Sarkar, C., & Webster, C. J. (2017) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-016-0122-1 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The urban public realm and adolescent mental health and wellbeing: A systematic review
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The impact of built environment on mental health: A COVID-19 lockdown perspective
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“First, it is imperative that the awareness of built environment design ’ s impact on mental health should be fostered (Galea et al., 2005).”
The built environment and depressive symptoms among urban youth: A spatial regression study
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“Second, studies that examine the influence of objectively measured built environments on depression/depressive symptoms have focused on adults (Weich et al., 2002; Galea et al., 2005; Kubzansky et al., 2005; Araya et al., 2007; Berke et al., 2007; Schootman et al., 2007; Stockdale et al., 2007; Sallis et al., 2009; Wi…”
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The Long-Term Effects of Moving to Opportunity on Adult Health and Economic Self-Sufficiency
Sanbonmatsu, L., Marvakov, J., Potter, N. A., Yang, F., Adam, E. K., Congdon, W. J., Duncan, G. J., Gennetian, L. A., Katz, L. F., Kling, J. R., et al. (2012) · Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Domènech‐Abella, J., Switsers, L., Mundó, J., Dierckx, E., Dury, S., & Donder, L. D. (2020) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2020.1727853 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
A Systematic Review and Conceptual Framework of Biophilic Design Parameters in Clinical Environments
Tekin, B. H., Corcoran, R., & Gutiérrez, R. U. (2022) · HERD Health Environments Research & Design Journal · doi:10.1177/19375867221118675 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“There is research evidence that corroborates that the physical qualities of the setting in which a patient receives healthcare positively influence health outcomes in those mental disorders (Evans, 2003; Galea et al., 2005; Laursen et al., 2014; Moore et al., 2018; Rao et al., 2007; Ulrich et al., 1991; Yadav et al.,…”
BackgroundSundling, C., & Jakobsson, M. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su151410817 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Impact of the Built Environment on Mental and Sexual Health: Policy Implications and Recommendations
Satcher, D. S., Okafor, M., & Dill, L. J. (2012) · ISRN Public Health · doi:10.5402/2012/806792 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“[22] S.”
BackgroundAhern, J., Margerison-Zilko, C. E., Hubbard, A., & Galea, S. (2013) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2012.301203 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationFleury, M., Grenier, G., Bamvita, J., Perreault, M., Kestens, Y., & Caron, J. (2012) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/1475-9276-11-20 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Association Between Structural Housing Repairs for Low-Income Homeowners and Neighborhood Crime
South, E. C., MacDonald, J. M., & Reina, V. J. (2021) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.17067 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“5 (18-98) years, were predominantly Black (10 952 [78.”
Tao, Y., Yang, J., & Chai, Y. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17010013 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Neighborhoods with well-connected streets and diverse land use enabled residents to have more route or destination choices for leisure activities and to build close community ties, which proved beneficial in reducing the risk of depression [20,21].”
BackgroundGaia meets Asclepius: Creating healthy places
Sullivan, W. C., Frumkin, H., Jackson, R. J., & Chang, C.-Y. (2014) · Landscape and Urban Planning · doi:10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.03.005 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
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“Moreover, differences in prevalence of mental ill health and related needs may change in the face of changes in the distribution of economic resources and the availability of social services; in demography as a result of shifting migration patterns; and in the built environment, particularly in urban settings [4–9].”
BackgroundXiao, Y., Miao, S., Sarkar, C., Geng, H., & Lü, Y. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15020225 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“Furthermore, because of the lower socioeconomic status and prominent liquidity characteristics of migrants, their residential environment had a temporary characteristic, resulting in significantly poorer housing quality as compared to non-migrant residents [31].”
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Improving Mental Health Through the Regeneration of Deprived Neighborhoods: A Natural Experiment
White, J., Greene, G., Farewell, D. M., Dunstan, F., Rodgers, S., Lyons, R. A., Humphreys, I., John, A. M., Webster, C. J., Phillips, C. J., et al. (2017) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwx086 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Galea, S., Ahern, J., Rudenstine, S., Wallace, Z., & Vlahov, D.
- Affiliations
- New York Academy of Medicine (US)
- Corresponding author
- Galea, Sandro
- Venue
- Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health
- Publisher
- BMJ
- Published
- 2005-09-15
- Volume
- 59
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 822-827
- ISSN
- 0141-7681 (ISSN-L)
- 0143-005X
- 1470-2738
- PMC
- PMC1732922
- OpenAlex
- W2092950181
- Cited by
- 409
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 18 · 2024: 28 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 22 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 34 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 11.13
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Deep Blue (University of Michigan) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (1r01mh066081-01)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH66081, R01MH066391, MH66391)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (R01DA013146, DA 13146-S2, DA 018061, R01DA017642, R01DA018061)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Transportation › Urban Transport and Accessibility
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Urban Green Space and Health
- Keywords
- urban built environment, depression, neighborhood characteristics, built environment quality, neighborhood income, housing conditions, vacant properties, urban planning, population mental health, New York City
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depressive Disorder, Environment, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, New York City, Residence Characteristics, Risk Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Urban Health, Logistic Models
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