The prevalence and distribution of major depression in a national community sample: the National Comorbidity Survey
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: Major depression is a frequent and disabling psychiatric disorder in the United States. This report examines the prevalence and risk factor profile of both pure and comorbid major depression according to data from the National Comorbidity Survey. METHOD: To estimate the prevalence of psychiatric comorbidity in the United States, a national sample of 8,098 persons 15-54 years of age from the 48 conterminous states was surveyed with a modified version of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. RESULTS: From the survey data the prevalence of current (30-day) major depression was estimated to be 4.9%, with a relatively higher prevalence in females, young adults, and persons with less than a college education. The prevalence estimate for lifetime major depression was 17.1%, with a similar demographic distribution. Both 30-day and lifetime prevalence estimates were higher than estimates from the earlier Epidemiologic Catchment Area study. When pure major depression was compared with major depression co-occurring with other psychiatric disorders, the risk factor profiles exhibited clear differences. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest a greater burden of major depression in community-dwelling persons than has been estimated from previous community samples. The risk factor profile showed significant differences between persons with pure and combined major depression.
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Depression is common among women, and the ages when women are most likely to give birth coincide with the ages when depression rates across the lifespan appear highest.
“Of course, depression is common among women, and the ages at which women are most likely to have children are those at which women seem to have the highest rates of depression across the life-span [56,57].”
From Perinatal mental illness: Definition, description and aetiology (2014) · cites this paper as [56]
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Ramchandani, P., Stein, A., O'Connor, T., Heron, J., Murray, L., & Evans, J. (2008) · Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31816429c2 · Cited by 471 · see citing works
Using Chronic Pain to Predict Depressive Morbidity in the General Population
Ohayon, M. M., & Schatzberg, A. F. (2003) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.1.39 · Cited by 617 · see citing works
“9% reported in the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS).(2) The differences between this study and the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA)(1) and NCS studies are numerous.”
BackgroundInfluentialRoy-Byrne, P. P., Stang, P., Wittchen, H.-U., Ustun, B., Walters, E. E., & Kessler, R. C. (2000) · British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.176.3.229 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Self-citationOpioid dependence and addiction during opioid treatment of chronic pain
Ballantyne, J. C., & LaForge, S. K. (2007) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2007.03.028 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
“(Blazer et al., 1994).”
Kauer, S. D., Reid, S. C., Crooke, A. H. D., Khor, A., Hearps, S. J. C., Jorm, A. F., Sanci, L., & Patton, G. (2012) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.1858 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
“Up to 25% of the population experience at least one episode of depression in their lifetime [2] with more women affected by depression than men [2,3].”
BackgroundRoberts, J. E., Gilboa, E., & Gotlib, I. H. (1998) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1023/a:1018713313894 · Cited by 438 · see citing works
Development and natural history of mood disorders
Costello, E. J., Pine, D. S., Hammen, C., March, J. S., Plotsky, P. M., Weissman, M. M., Biederman, J., Goldsmith, H. H., Kaufman, J., Lewinsohn, P. M., et al. (2002) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(02)01372-0 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
“The report is written in response to a charge from the director of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) to review current knowledge and point a course for future work.”
BackgroundInfluentialSocial relationships and depression: ten-year follow-up from a nationally representative study
Teo, A. R., Choi, H., & Valenstein, M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062396 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
Chronic Stress-induced Hippocampal Vulnerability: The Glucocorticoid Vulnerability Hypothesis
Conrad, C. D. (2008) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro.2008.19.6.395 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
Relationship Between Antidepressant Medication Treatment and Suicide in Adolescents
Olfson, M., Shaffer, D., Marcus, S. C., & Greenberg, T. (2003) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.60.9.978 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
Williams, J. W., Mulrow, C. D., Chiquette, E., Noël, P. H., Aguilar, C., & Cornell, J. E. (2000) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-132-9-200005020-00011 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
“Dysthymia, a chronic mood disorder associated with significant functional impairment, occurs in approximately 3% of persons (57).”
BackgroundUrban built environment and depression: A multilevel analysis
Galea, S., Ahern, J., Rudenstine, S., Wallace, Z., & Vlahov, D. (2005) · Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2005.033084 · Cited by 409 · see citing works
Depression scale scores in 8–17‐year‐olds: effects of age and gender
Angold, A. C., Erkanli, A., Silberg, J. L., Eaves, L. J., & Costello, E. J. (2002) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00232 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Santos, I. S., Tavares, B. F., Munhoz, T. N., Almeida, L. S. P. D., Silva, N. T. B. D., Tams, B. D., Patella, A. M., & Matijasevich, A. (2013) · Cadernos de Saúde Pública · doi:10.1590/s0102-311x2013001200006 · Cited by 415 · see citing works
Racial/Ethnic Differences in Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in Adolescents
McLaughlin, K. A., Hilt, L. M., & Nolen–Hoeksema, S. (2007) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9128-1 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
“For example, in the National Comorbidity Survey (NCS), the gender difference in major depression was found to be more pronounced in Black and Hispanic groups than in Whites (Blazer et al. 1994).”
BackgroundInfluentialDo Depression Symptoms Predict Early Hypertension Incidence in Young Adults in the CARDIA Study?
Davidson, K. W., Jonas, B. S., Dixon, K. E., & Markovitz, J. H. (2000) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.160.10.1495 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Psychiatric disorders in youths with IDDM: rates and risk factors
Kovacs, M., Goldston, D., Obrosky, D. S., & Bonar, L. K. (1997) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.20.1.36 · Cited by 394 · see citing works
“In the national probability sample (59), 15.”
Genome-wide association study of obsessive-compulsive disorder
Stewart, S. E., Yu, D., Scharf, J. M., Neale, B. M., Fagerness, J. A., Mathews, C. A., Arnold, P. D., Evans, P. D., Gamazon, E. R., Osiecki, L., et al. (2013) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/mp.2012.85 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
Zebrack, B., Gurney, J. G., Oeffinger, K. C., Whitton, J. A., Packer, R. J., Mertens, A. C., Turk, N., Castleberry, R. P., Dreyer, Z. E., Robison, L. L., et al. (2004) · Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1200/jco.2004.06.148 · Cited by 397 · see citing works
Food insufficiency and women's mental health: Findings from a 3-year panel of welfare recipients
Heflin, C. M., Siefert, K., & Williams, D. R. (2005) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.04.014 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
de Graaf, R., ten Have, M., van Gool, C., & van Dorsselaer, S. (2012) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-010-0334-8 · Cited by 390 · see citing works
Racial/Ethnic Differences in Rates of Depression Among Preretirement Adults
Dunlop, D. D., Song, J., Lyons, J. S., Manheim, L. M., & Chang, R. W. (2003) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.93.11.1945 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Davey, C. G., Yücel, M., & Allen, N. B. (2008) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.04.016 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
The prevalence of antenatal and postnatal co-morbid anxiety and depression: a meta-analysis
Falah‐Hassani, K., Shiri, R., & Dennis, C. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717000617 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
“Further, they were more likely to have neuroticism, a positive parental psychiatric history and a history of childhood trauma (Blazer et al. 1994; de Graaf et al. 2002).”
Backgroundde Graaf, R., Bijl, R., Smit, F., Vollebergh, W., & Spijker, J. (2002) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.4.620 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
“The National Comorbidity Study compared the risk factors for 30-day pure major depression and major depression comorbid with any other disorder (17).”
InfluentialThe impact of maternal depression on familial relationships
Burke, L. (2003) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/0954026031000136866 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
“The prevalence estimates for lifetime major depression was 17.1% (Blazer et al., 1994).”
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Zebrack, B., Zeltzer, L. K., Whitton, J. A., Mertens, A. C., Odom, L. F., Berkow, R. L., & Robison, L. L. (2002) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.110.1.42 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Hack, M., Youngstrom, E. A., Cartar, L., SCHLUCHTER, M. D., Taylor, H. G., Flannery, D. J., Klein, N., & Borawski, E. A. (2004) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2003-1017-l · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Depressive and Anxiety Disorders in Women With HIV Infection
Morrison, M. F., Petitto, J. M., Have, T. T., Gettes, D. R., Chiappini, M. S., Weber, A. L., Brinker-Spence, P., Bauer, R. M., Douglas, S. D., & Evans, D. L. (2002) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.5.789 · Cited by 369 · see citing works
Grgić, J., Dumuid, D., Bengoechea, E. G., Shrestha, N., Bauman, A. E., Olds, T., & Pedišić, Ž. (2018) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-018-0691-3 · Cited by 373 · see citing works
“Most of the studies were performed in the USA (n = 21), eleven studies were performed in the UK, five in Australia, four in Sweden, three in the Netherlands, two in Canada and Spain, and one in Portugal, Norway, Japan, Greenland, Finland, China, and Denmark.”
BackgroundInfluential
- Authors
- Blazer, D. G., Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., & Swartz, M. S.
- Affiliations
- Duke Medical Center (US)
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 1994-07-01
- Volume
- 151
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 979-986
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- OpenAlex
- W2181560023
- Cited by
- 1,485
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 50 · 2015: 49 · 2014: 57 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 57
- FWCI
- 39.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH046376, NIMH MH-00507, MH 46376)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Treatment of Major Depression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- major depressive disorder, prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity, risk factors, lifetime prevalence, community-dwelling adults, sex differences, young adults, educational attainment, National Comorbidity Survey
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Mental Disorders, Depressive Disorder, Educational Status, Female, Health Surveys, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, United States, Comorbidity, Prevalence
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