Sex Differences in Substrate Metabolism and Energy Homeostasis
Abstract
Females differ remarkably from males in the mechanisms that regulate substrate utilization and energy homeostasis. Females appear to be less affected in terms of growth and loss of body tissues when subjected to chronic periods of negative energy balance. The physiological trade-off appears to be a stronger propensity toward retention of fat mass during times of energy surfeit. The mechanism(s) that account for sex differences in energy metabolism are not known but most likely involve the sex steroids. Recent discoveries in the areas of endocrinology and metabolism may provide new insights into differences in the control of food intake and energy conservation between the sexes. Finally, the study of the mechanism(s) involved in the regulation of skeletal muscle lipid metabolism represents a new frontier in skeletal muscle bioenergetics, and new discoveries may provide further explanations for the observed sex differences in substrate utilization and response(s) to alterations in energy homeostasis. Key words: Sex differences, growth, body composition, survival, substrate utilization
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
When animals are subjected to complete starvation, females have a greater ratio of lipid to protein loss and are more likely to survive.
“When animals are subjected to complete starvation, females have a greater ratio of lipid to protein loss and are more likely to survive [26, 29].”
From Sex differences in metabolic homeostasis, diabetes, and obesity (2015) · cites this paper as [29]
Important sex differences exist in mitochondrial function, substrate utilization, insulin sensitivity, immune responses, muscle morphology and body composition, iron metabolism, thermoregulation, hydration, appetite control, and energy availability and endocrine function.
“important sex differences exist in mitochondrial function [14–16], substrate utilization, and insulin sensitivity [17–24], immune responses [25–28], muscle morphology and body composition [29–32], iron metabolism [33–40], thermoregulation [41–44], hydration [45,46]{Sims, 2008 #55, [47–53], appetite control [54–59], and energy availability and endocrine function [60–65].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [16]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The role of estrogens in control of energy balance and glucose homeostasis
Mauvais-Jarvis, F., Clegg, D. J., & Hevener, A. L. (2013) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/er.2012-1055 · Cited by 1,329 · see citing works
“This is consistent with a reduced respiratory quotient and greater reliance on fatty acid oxidation as a fuel source in women (255).”
BackgroundSex differences in metabolic homeostasis, diabetes, and obesity
Mauvais-Jarvis, F. (2015) · Biology of Sex Differences · doi:10.1186/s13293-015-0033-y · Cited by 626 · see citing works
“When animals are subjected to complete starvation, females have a greater ratio of lipid to protein loss and are more likely to survive [26, 29].”
BackgroundModulation of appetite by gonadal steroid hormones
Asarian, L., & Geary, N. (2006) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1860 · Cited by 506 · see citing works
Gender differences in thermoregulation
Kaciuba-Uściłko, H., & Grucza, R. (2001) · Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care · doi:10.1097/00075197-200111000-00012 · Cited by 290 · see citing works
Yang, L., Zhao, S., Gao, S., Zhang, H., Arens, E. A., & Zhai, Y. (2021) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111360 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Energy Metabolism Need to Be Considered with Lifestyle Modifications in Humans
Wu, B. N., & O’Sullivan, A. (2011) · Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism · doi:10.1155/2011/391809 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“In the literature reviewed, there is evidence to suggest that these effects can be mediated through hepatic targets, adipocyte targets, and adipokines such as leptin.”
BackgroundSex differences in the human metabolome
Costanzo, M., Caterino, M., Sotgiu, G., Ruoppolo, M., Franconi, F., & Campesi, I. (2022) · Biology of Sex Differences · doi:10.1186/s13293-022-00440-4 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Ishii, M., Fei, H., & Friedman, J. M. (2003) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1334189100 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Impaired estrogen receptor action in the pathogenesis of the metabolic syndrome
Hevener, A. L., Clegg, D. J., & Mauvais-Jarvis, F. (2015) · Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.mce.2015.05.020 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“These observations are consistent with a reduced respiratory quotient and greater reliance on the oxidation of fatty acids as a fuel source in women (Cortright and Koves, 2000).”
BackgroundJaworowski, Å., Porter, M. M., Holmbäck, A. M., Downham, D., & Lexell, J. (2002) · Acta Physiologica Scandinavica · doi:10.1046/j.1365-201x.2002.t01-2-01004.x · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“Although the mechanism(s) is not known, it most likely involves the sex steroids (Cortright & Koves 2000).”
BackgroundValle, A., Guevara, R., García-Palmer, F., Roca, P., & Oliver, J. (2007) · American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00203.2007 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“In fact, several studies on rodents have shown that CR has a greater and more permanent effect on physical growth in male than in female rats (8, 18).”
BackgroundSex-related differences in energy balance in response to caloric restriction.
Valle, A., Català-Niell, A., Colom, B., García-Palmer, F., Oliver, J., & Roca, P. (2005) · American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00553.2004 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“Several studies have reported that CR and starvation have a consistently greater effect on physical growth in males than in females (10, 23, 25, 26, 29, 63, 64).”
BackgroundInternational society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete
Sims, S. T., Kerksick, C. M., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Janse de Jonge, X. A. K., Hirsch, K. R., Arent, S. M., Hewlings, S. J., Kleiner, S. M., Bustillo, E., Tartar, J. L., et al. (2023) · Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition · doi:10.1080/15502783.2023.2204066 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Colom, B., Alcolea, M., Valle, A., Oliver, J., Roca, P., & García-Palmer, F. (2007) · Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1159/000099208 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Sex differences in carbohydrate metabolism
Tarnopolsky, M. A., & Ruby, B. C. (2001) · Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care · doi:10.1097/00075197-200111000-00010 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Hevener, A. L., Zhou, Z., Moore, T. M., Drew, B. G., & Ribas, V. (2018) · Molecular Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2018.06.013 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“This observation in women, is consistent with a reduced respiratory quotient and greater reliance on fatty acids as a fuel source [146].”
BackgroundSex Differences in Brown Adipose Tissue Thermogenic Features During Caloric Restriction
Valle, A., García-Palmer, F., Oliver, J., & Roca, P. (2007) · Cellular Physiology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1159/000099207 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Understanding eating disorders
Södersten, P., Bergh, C. E. K., & Zandian, M. (2006) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.030 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“The marked sex difference in eating disorders has not been explained but it is long known that women can stand starvation better than men, possibly because of the sex difference in body fat content (Keys et al., 1950; Hoyenga and Hoyenga, 1982; Cortright and Koves, 2000).”
BackgroundD'Eon, T. M., & Braun, B. (2002) · Journal of Women s Health & Gender-Based Medicine · doi:10.1089/152460902753668439 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Control of hyperphagia prevents obesity in BDNF heterozygous mice
Coppola, V., & Tessarollo, L. (2004) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200412030-00022 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“data was obtained separately for both males and females since there is ample evidence that in most mammals energy homeostasis is regulated differently in the two genders [10,11].”
BackgroundThe Impact of Skeletal Muscle ERα on Mitochondrial Function and Metabolic Health
Hevener, A. L., Ribas, V., Moore, T. M., & Zhou, Z. (2020) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endocr/bqz017 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Sudo, N., Sekiyama, M., Watanabe, C., Bokul, A. T. M. M. H., & Ohtsuka, R. (2004) · International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/09637480400015844 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“…energy requirement and dietary intake are larger in males than in females (US Department of Agriculture, 1997; de Castro, 1998; Institute of Medicine, 2002), due to not only sex difference in physiological requirement, but also sociocultural factors (Jensen & Holm, 1999; Cortright & Koves, 2000).”
BackgroundGarcia‐Caraballo, S., Comhair, T. M., Houten, S. M., Dejong, C. H. C., Lamers, W. H., & Köhler, E. S. (2014) · The Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.jnutbio.2014.07.005 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“These sex differences can probably be accounted for by the higher circulating estrogen concentrations and the continuous rather than episodic secretion pattern of growth hormone in females [42,43,47].”
BackgroundERα in the Control of Mitochondrial Function and Metabolic Health
Hevener, A. L., Ribas, V., Moore, T. M., & Zhou, Z. (2020) · Trends in Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.molmed.2020.09.006 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Rune, A., Salehzadeh, F., Szekeres, F. L. M., Kühn, I., Osler, M. E., & Al‐Khalili, L. (2009) · Acta Physiologica · doi:10.1111/j.1748-1716.2009.02010.x · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“Differences in whole body glucose homeostasis between men and women are well established (Benedict & Emmes 1915, Cortright & Koves 2000, Regitz-Zagrosek et al. 2006).”
BackgroundFGF21 controls hepatic lipid metabolism via sex-dependent interorgan crosstalk
CHAFFIN, A. T. B., Larson, K. R., Huang, K.-P., Wu, C.-T., Nadejda, G., Fang, Y., Jayakrishnan, D., Sauza, K. A. S., Sims, L. C., Mohajerani, N., et al. (2022) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.155848 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“When individuals are subjected to complete starvation, females have a greater ratio of lipid to protein loss and are more likely to survive (3, 4).”
BackgroundXu, X., Zhang, H. E., Wu, G., et al. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175323 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
The Role of Skeletal Muscle Estrogen Receptors in Metabolic Homeostasis and Insulin Sensitivity
Hevener, A. L., Zhou, Z., Drew, B. G., & Ribas, V. (2017) · Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-70178-3_13 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Ancona, S., Drummond, H., Rodríguez, C., & Zúñiga-Vega, J. J. (2017) · Journal of Avian Biology · doi:10.1111/jav.01133 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Jumbo‐Lucioni, P. P., Bu, S., Harbison, S. T., Slaughter, J. C., Mackay, T. F. C., Moellering, D. R., & Luca, M. D. (2012) · BMC Genomics · doi:10.1186/1471-2164-13-659 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“The sex-related differences in mitochondrial function observed in our study are consistent with the wellrecognized differences between males and females in the control of substrate metabolism and energy homeostasis that occur across different species [37].”
ResultTower, J., Landis, G. N., Gao, R. W., Luan, A., Lee, J., & Sun, Y. (2013) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glt078 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Tian, H., Qiu, R., Jing, L., Chen, Z.-Y., Chen, G., & Chen, Y. (2017) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114517001118 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Previous studies have also reported that chronic periods of negative energy balance tend to have less of an effect on growth and loss of body tissue in females than in males (38) .”
Evaluation of gender differences in physiology: an introduction
Tarnopolsky, M. A., & Saris, W. H. M. (2001) · Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition & Metabolic Care · doi:10.1097/00075197-200111000-00004 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Body composition and metabolic changes associated with massive intestinal resection in mice
Tantemsapya, N., Meinzner-Derr, J., Erwin, C. R., & Warner, B. W. (2008) · Journal of Pediatric Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2007.09.010 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Combined Effect of Gender and Caloric Restriction on Liver Proteomic Expression Profile
Valle, A., Silvestri, E., Moreno, M., Chambery, A., Oliver, J., Roca, P., & Goglia, F. (2008) · Journal of Proteome Research · doi:10.1021/pr800086t · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Lee, J. R., Tapia, M. A., Nelson, J. R., Moore, J. M., Gereau, G. B., Childs, T. E., Vieira‐Potter, V. J., Booth, F. W., & Will, M. J. (2018) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2018.10.018 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“However, sex differences in metabolic response to physical activity such as body mass change have been well documented [15,16].”
Ovarian hormones mediate running‐induced changes in high fat diet choice patterns in female rats
Yang, T. Y., & Liang, N.-C. (2018) · Hormones and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.02.010 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Thus, differences in the efficiency of fuel substrate utilization where the HF diet is a more efficient fuel source for females during a state of increased energy demand could explain running-associated sex differences in HF diet choice (Hill et al., 1986; Cortright and Koves, 2000).”
Gender dimorphism of body mass perception and regulation in mice
Wiedmer, P., Boschmann, M., & Klaus, S. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.01120 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Most mammals show gender dimorphisms in body mass and composition, and there is ample evidence that energy homeostasis and substrate utilization are regulated differently in males and females (Cortright and Koves, 2000).”
BackgroundDispersion dimorphism in human populations
Marini, E., Rebato, E., Racugno, W., et al. (2004) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.20134 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Influencing factors of metabolic rates and their implications in thermal comfort research
Zhao, S., Yang, L., Gao, S., Yan, H., Zhang, H., Arens, E. A., Liu, S., & Zhai, Y. (2025) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.115777 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Militello, R., Pinto, G., Illiano, A., Luti, S., Magherini, F., Amoresano, A., Modesti, P. A., & Modesti, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.813447 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
FGF21 mediating the Sex-dependent Response to Dietary Macronutrients
Sauza, K. A. S., & Ryan, K. K. (2024) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgae363 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Sex and Gender Differences in Endocrinology
Kautzky‐Willer, A. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-85729-832-4_9 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Chaudhari, H. N., Kim, S. W., & Yun, J. W. (2014) · Free Radical Research · doi:10.3109/10715762.2014.896003 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Hu, C., Ding, H., Zhuang, Q., Llanos, P., Pillay, T., Hernandez, C., Carpentier, Y., Deckelbaum, R. J., & Chang, C. L. (2020) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2020.07.002 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“It should be noted that most mammals exhibit sexual dimorphisms in body mass and composition (38), thus, parameters that can affect energy homeostasis and substrate utilization might be different in males and females(39).”
BackgroundGarcia‐Caraballo, S., Comhair, T. M., Dejong, C. H. C., Lamers, W. H., & Köhler, E. S. (2014) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114514001986 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Viana, R. S., Ferreira, M. V. N., Schaan, B. D., Bloch, K. V., de Carvalho, K. M. B., Cureau, F. V., & de Moraes, A. C. F. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11060620 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Effects of predation risk on the body mass regulation of growing wood mice
Monarca, R. I., Speakman, J. R., & Mathias, M. D. L. (2020) · Journal of Zoology · doi:10.1111/jzo.12811 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Nye, G., Sakellariou, G. K., Degens, H., & Lightfoot, A. P. (2017) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs20160940 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Xiang, S., Cheng, Z., Lu, Y., & Xu, J. (2024) · Journal of Building Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.jobe.2024.111236 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Lee, J. R., Tapia, M. A., Weise, V. N., Bathe, E. L., Vieira‐Potter, V. J., Booth, F. W., & Will, M. J. (2019) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.05.017 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Rauskolb, S. (2008) · edoc (University of Basel) · doi:10.5451/unibas-004587325 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Metabolite Profiles of Male and Female Humboldt Penguins
Levengood, J. M., Schaeffer, D. J., & ULANOV, A. V. (2015) · Veterinary Sciences · doi:10.3390/vetsci2040349 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“We hypothesized that published differences in the energy balances of male and female animals [9–17] would be associated with uncharacterized dimorphic differences in metabolite profiles encompassing a broad range of metabolome classes.”
BackgroundHeimann, P., Konrad, K., & Vloet, T. D. (2018) · Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000579 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Sex-specific resilience of neocortex to food restriction
Padamsey, Z., Katsanevaki, D., Maeso, P. A., Rizzi, M., Osterweil, E. K., & Rochefort, N. L. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.93052.3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Improving sleep comfort by using a thermoregulation mat with a floor heating system
Kim, J. W., Kim, S. H., & Moon, H. J. (2025) · Energy and Buildings · doi:10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.115316 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Impact of Estrogen Receptor α Expression in the Pathogenesis of the Metabolic Syndrome
Hevener, A. L., & Drew, B. G. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8630-5_6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Han, Y., Wang, L., Liu, H., Xu, Y., Yang, J., Wang, F., & Ye, G. (2025) · Journal of Thermal Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2025.104165 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Special Nutritional Considerations for Female and Special Populations in Esports
SEINO, J. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-99625-2_8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Luo, A., Wu, X., Yuan, C., Lu, X., Shao, Y., & Li, Y. (2025) · Case Studies in Thermal Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.csite.2025.107435 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Sex-specific resilience of neocortex to food restriction
Padamsey, Z., Katsanevaki, D., Maeso, P. A., Rizzi, M., Osterweil, E. K., & Rochefort, N. L. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.93052 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lin, H. C., & Stone, E. E. (2015) · Yamada's Textbook of Gastroenterology · doi:10.1002/9781118512074.ch117 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kuzmenko, D. I., Burov, P. G., Serebrov, V. Y., Файт, Е. А., & Перевозчикова, Т. В. (2011) · Biochemistry (Moscow) Supplement Series B Biomedical Chemistry · doi:10.1134/s1990750811040068
Molecular studies on sex differences in hepatic gene expression and fuel metabolism
Cheung, L. K. (2008) · Figshare
Yang, T. Y. (2018) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
Comparison of Health Impact of Ambient Temperature Between China and Other Countries
Zhao, Q., Hu, K., Li, S., & Guo, Y. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-2583-0_9
Sex-specific resilience of neocortex to food restrictionPreprint
Padamsey, Z., Katsanevaki, D., Maeso, P. A., Rizzi, M., Osterweil, E. K., & Rochefort, N. L. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.10.06.561185
Sex-specific resilience of neocortex to food restrictionPreprint
Padamsey, Z., Katsanevaki, D., Maeso, P. A., Rizzi, M., Osterweil, E. K., & Rochefort, N. L. (2023) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.93052.1
Sex-specific resilience of neocortex to food restrictionPreprint
Padamsey, Z., Katsanevaki, D., Maeso, P. A., Rizzi, M., Osterweil, E. K., & Rochefort, N. L. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.93052.2
Additional file 1 of Sex differences in the human metabolome
Costanzo, M., Caterino, M., Sotgiu, G., et al. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.20079128
Dabbs, N. C., Binkley, H. M., Bott, C., Fragala, M. R., Herda, A. A., Moeskops, S., Moore, E. W. G., Smith‐Ryan, A. E., & Triplett, N. T. (2026) · The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0000000000005493
Iskra, R., Klymets, H. V., & Oliynyk, I. (2026) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.64898/2026.08.23.746541
Iskra, R., Klymets, H. V., & Oliynyk, I. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0357938
“In contrast, males showed a sustained decrease in activity, reflecting a significant shift in metabolism toward the oxidative pathway and a weaker response to the insulinomimetic effects of vanadium [15].”
- Authors
- Cortright, R. N., & Koves, T. R.
- Affiliations
- East Carolina University (US)
- ORCID
- Koves, Timothy R.
- Venue
- Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology
- Publisher
- Canadian Science Publishing
- Published
- 2000-08-01
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 288-311
- ISSN
- 1066-7814 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1976771342
- Cited by
- 75
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 1 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 3 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 0.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Canadian Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Adipose Tissue and Metabolism
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Keywords
- sex differences, substrate metabolism, energy homeostasis, energy balance, sex steroids, food intake regulation, energy conservation, skeletal muscle lipid metabolism, skeletal muscle bioenergetics
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Body Composition, Diabetes Mellitus, Energy Metabolism, Female, Homeostasis, Humans, Male, Obesity, Sex Characteristics, Starvation, Exercise
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
