Examining Image-Based Button Labeling for Accessibility in Android Apps through Large-Scale Analysis
Open accessAbstract
We conduct the first large-scale analysis of the accessibility of mobile apps, examining what unique insights this can provide into the state of mobile app accessibility. We analyzed 5,753 free Android apps for label-based accessibility barriers in three classes of image-based buttons: Clickable Images, Image Buttons, and Floating Action Buttons. An epidemiology-inspired framework was used to structure the investigation. The population of free Android apps was assessed for label-based inaccessible button diseases. Three determinants of the disease were considered: missing labels, duplicate labels, and uninformative labels. The prevalence, or frequency of occurrences of barriers, was examined in apps and in classes of image-based buttons. In the app analysis, 35.9% of analyzed apps had 90% or more of their assessed image-based buttons labeled, 45.9% had less than 10% of assessed image-based buttons labeled, and the remaining apps were relatively uniformly distributed along the proportion of elements that were labeled. In the class analysis, 92.0% of Floating Action Buttons were found to have missing labels, compared to 54.7% of Image Buttons and 86.3% of Clickable Images. We discuss how these accessibility barriers are addressed in existing treatments, including accessibility development guidelines.
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BVI users often encounter challenges related to locating and accessing features/elements due to labeling issues (e.g., missing, improper, or inadequate labels) in mobile websites and applications.
“Specifically, BVI users often encounter challenges related to locating and accessing features/elements due to labeling issues (e.g., missing, improper, or inadequate labels) in mobile websites and applications [7,16,17,18,19,20,21,22].”
From Help-Seeking Situations Related to Visual Interactions on Mobile Platforms and Recommended Designs for Blind and Visually Impaired Users (2024) · cites this paper as [20]
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Marques, S. C. C., Viana, M. C., & Carvalho, D. B. F. (2025) · Simpósio Brasileiro de Fatores Humanos em Sistemas Computacionais (IHC) · doi:10.5753/ihc.2025.10851
Caption: Generating Informative Content Labels for Image Buttons Using Next-Screen Context
Zhong, M., Mallavarapu, A., & Nie, Q. (2025) · ACM Symposium on User Interface Software and Technology (UIST) · doi:10.1145/3746058.3758413
Khan, M. S. A., Wang, Z., Khan, J. A., & Khan, N. D. (2025) · Array · doi:10.1016/j.array.2025.100572
Smart Assist: A Floating Multilingual Accessibility Assistant for Mobile Screens
Shravage, C., Gaikwad, A., Shah, N., Waghmare, R., & Jadhav, Y. (2026) · International Conference on Communication, Computing and Emerging Technologies (IC3ET) · doi:10.1109/ic3et64989.2026.11467285
Accessibility Issue Detection and Repair in Mobile Applications: A Systematic Literature Review
Liu, Z., Yao, D., Liu, H., Xu, C., & Huang, H. (2026) · ACM Transactions on Software Engineering and Methodology · doi:10.1145/3809496
Altify: Shift-left Icon Alt-text for Mobile App Developers
Haque, S., & Csallner, C. (2026) · International Web for All Conference (W4A) · doi:10.1145/3800424.3800427
Wu, Y., Zhou, S., Wang, Z., Li, L., & Bu, J. (2026) · International Web for All Conference (W4A) · doi:10.1145/3800424.3800448
Choi, J., Choi, D., Jeong, S., Hong, H., & Seering, J. (2026) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3800645.3812959
Zhou, H., & Song, W. (2026) · Proceedings of the ACM on software engineering. · doi:10.1145/3797108
AccessDroid: Uncovering Screen Reader Accessibility Issues from Runtime Pages of Android Apps
Zhou, H., & Song, W. (2026) · ACM Joint European Software Engineering Conference and Symposium on the Foundations of Software Engineering (ESEC/FSE) · doi:10.1145/3803437.3806419
Choi, S., & Fischer, J. E. (2026) · ACM Conference on Conversational User Interfaces (CUI) · doi:10.1145/3816046.3816209
FocalFlow: Facilitating Decision-Making in Multi-Step Mobile Tasks for Blind and Low Vision People
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From Reports to Resolutions: Accessibility in Practice Through Moodle’s Issue Tracker
He, Z., Huq, S. F., He, Y., Dam, H. K., & Malek, S. (2026) · International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS) · doi:10.1145/3797867.3829062
- Authors
- Ross, A. S., Zhang, X., Fogarty, J., & Wobbrock, J. O.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the 20th International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2018-10-08
- Pages
- 119-130
- OpenAlex
- W2896625930
- Cited by
- 90
- References
- 19
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 2
- FWCI
- 12.93
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- International ACM SIGACCESS Conference on Computers and Accessibility (ASSETS) (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (DGE-1256082, IIS-1702751)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Human Factors and Ergonomics › Digital Accessibility for Disabilities
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Usability and User Interface Design
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Assistive Technology in Communication and Mobility
- Keywords
- mobile app accessibility, Android application, missing labels, access barriers, accessibility guidelines
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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