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Cited by 8Digital Accessibility for DisabilitiesUsability and User Interface DesignAssistive Technology in Communication and Mobility

Help-Seeking Situations Related to Visual Interactions on Mobile Platforms and Recommended Designs for Blind and Visually Impaired Users

Open access
Xie, Iris, Choi, Wonchan, Wang, Shengang, Lee, Hyun Seung, Hong, Bo Hyun, Wang, Ning-Chiao, Cudjoe, Emmanuel Kwame·2024·Journal of Imaging
DOI 10.3390/jimaging10080205PMC PMC11355365
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Abstract

While it is common for blind and visually impaired (BVI) users to use mobile devices to search for information, little research has explored the accessibility issues they encounter in their interactions with information retrieval systems, in particular digital libraries (DLs). This study represents one of the most comprehensive research projects, investigating accessibility issues, especially help-seeking situations BVI users face in their DL search processes. One hundred and twenty BVI users were recruited to search for information in six DLs on four types of mobile devices (iPhone, iPad, Android phone, and Android tablet), and multiple data collection methods were employed: questionnaires, think-aloud protocols, transaction logs, and interviews. This paper reports part of a large-scale study, including the categories of help-seeking situations BVI users face in their interactions with DLs, focusing on seven types of help-seeking situations related to visual interactions on mobile platforms: difficulty finding a toggle-based search feature, difficulty understanding a video feature, difficulty navigating items on paginated sections, difficulty distinguishing collection labels from thumbnails, difficulty recognizing the content of images, difficulty recognizing the content of graphs, and difficulty interacting with multilayered windows. Moreover, corresponding design recommendations are also proposed: placing meaningful labels for icon-based features in an easy-to-access location, offering intuitive and informative video descriptions for video players, providing structure information about a paginated section, separating collection/item titles from thumbnail descriptions, incorporating artificial intelligence image/graph recognition mechanisms, and limiting screen reader interactions to active windows. Additionally, the limitations of the study and future research are discussed.

Verified 2026-10-06 · 1 reference not checked yet

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study examined help-seeking situations related to visual interactions among 120 blind and visually impaired (BVI) screen-reader users searching six digital libraries on four mobile device types. It identified seven typical visual-interaction help-seeking situations across features/elements, content, and structure, and proposed corresponding design recommendations.

Key findings

  • Across 788 coded help-seeking instances, features/elements was the most frequent category (n = 329, 41.8%), followed by content (n = 274, 34.8%) and structure (n = 165, 20.94%); visual-interaction instances were 77/329 (23.4%) in features/elements, 144/274 (52.6%) in content, and 5/165 (3.03%) in structure.
  • Seven typical visual-interaction situations were reported: difficulty finding a toggle-based search feature, understanding a video feature, navigating items on paginated sections, distinguishing collection labels from thumbnail descriptions, recognizing image content, recognizing graph content, and interacting with multilayered windows.
  • Recommended designs included meaningful labels for icon-based features in easy-to-access locations, intuitive and informative video descriptions, structure information for paginated sections, separating collection/item titles from thumbnail descriptions, incorporating AI image/graph recognition mechanisms, and limiting screen reader interactions to active windows.

Methods

  • Recruited 120 BVI participants across the United States, with 30 in each of four device groups (iPhone, iPad, Android phone, Android tablet); all relied on screen readers (VoiceOver or TalkBack).
  • Each participant used two DLs—Library of Congress plus one of DPLA, HathiTrust, ArtStor, OER Commons, or the National Museum of African American History and Culture—and completed one orientation task and two search tasks; data came from pre-questionnaires, think-aloud protocols, transaction logs/screenshots/video, and interviews.
  • Qualitative open coding was used, with inter-coder reliability of 0.81 based on Krippendorff’s Alpha, and descriptive analysis presented frequency distributions of help-seeking categories.

Limitations

  • Stated: although the six DLs represented diverse domains, formats, and hosting organizations, findings may not be fully generalizable; online data collection via virtual conferencing might have hindered natural interactions.
  • Evident from the text: this paper reports part of a larger study and focuses on seven visual-interaction situations; quantitative analysis of relationships between participant demographics, mobile platforms/devices, and help-seeking situations is left for future work.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/jimaging10080205

Cites

45 of 46 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 31 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Non-text interface elements, such as buttons with visual cues but without understandable labels, pose a challenge for BVI users.

    “The non-text interface elements, such as buttons with visual cues but without understandable labels, pose a challenge for BVI users.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.
  • Findingown data

    BVI users encountered help-seeking situations in their interactions with digital libraries on mobile devices.

    “As a result of the open coding analysis, it was found that participants experienced a total of 788 instances of help-seeking situations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 120 recruited BVI participants are representative of BVI users who use mobile digital libraries.
    • Rests on an assumption: The six selected digital libraries are representative of mobile digital libraries.
    • Rests on an assumption: The four mobile device types (iPhone, iPad, Android phone, Android tablet) represent mobile platforms for BVI users.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.
  • Findingnone given

    Difficulty distinguishing collection labels from thumbnail descriptions is a typical help-seeking situation related to visual interactions on mobile platforms.

    “Features/Elements: Difficulty Distinguishing Collection Labels from Thumbnail Descriptions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 120 recruited BVI participants are representative of BVI users who use mobile digital libraries.
    • Rests on an assumption: The six selected digital libraries are representative of mobile digital libraries.
    • Rests on an assumption: The four mobile device types (iPhone, iPad, Android phone, Android tablet) represent mobile platforms for BVI users.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.
  • Findingown data

    Difficulty understanding a video feature occurs when BVI users face difficulty interpreting the functionality of or executing a video-related feature due to inappropriate labeling.

    “This situation occurs when BVI users face difficulty interpreting the functionality of or executing a video-related feature due to inappropriate labeling.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.
  • Findingown data

    A hidden search field caused by responsive design creates additional steps needed to locate the search field.

    “Moreover, a hidden search field caused by responsive design creates additional steps needed to locate the search field, adding to complications that hamper easy access to the search field.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.
  • May combine two claims. 24
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 25

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The content category accounted for 274 instances (about 34.8% of coded help-seeking situations), with 144 (52.6%) associated with visual interactions.

    “The content category (n = 274) accounted for about 34.8% of the coded help-seeking situations instances, with 144 (52.6%) associated with visual interactions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 120 recruited BVI participants are representative of BVI users who use mobile digital libraries.
    • Rests on an assumption: The six selected digital libraries are representative of mobile digital libraries.
    • Rests on an assumption: The four mobile device types (iPhone, iPad, Android phone, Android tablet) represent mobile platforms for BVI users.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The structure category accounted for 165 instances (about 20.94% of help situations), with only five instances (3.03%) associated with visual interactions.

    “About 20.94% of the help situations are associated with the structure category (n = 165), with only five instances (3.03%) associated with visual interactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The 120 recruited BVI participants are representative of BVI users who use mobile digital libraries.
    • Rests on an assumption: The six selected digital libraries are representative of mobile digital libraries.
    • Rests on an assumption: The four mobile device types (iPhone, iPad, Android phone, Android tablet) represent mobile platforms for BVI users.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Available tags for video-related features are meaningless and nonsensical without proper context, as they only consist of numbers and text.

    “As mentioned by AP14-OL, the available tags are meaningless and nonsensical without proper context, as they only consist of numbers and text.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    AP15-LO was unable to grasp any specific information about the graph and could only access an overview of the graph.

    “AP15-LO was unable to grasp any specific information about the graph and could only access an overview of the graph (Figure 10).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    ALT text was inadequate to concisely convey information about important components of the poster.

    “Meanwhile, the ALT text was inadequate to concisely convey information about important components of the poster.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    AP15-LO could access alternative descriptions (metadata) within the same task, but it was still difficult to recognize the unique components of graphs, including legends and colors.

    “Even though another participant, AP15-LO, could access alternative descriptions (metadata) within the same task, it was still difficult to recognize the unique components of graphs, including legends and colors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    AT18-OL could not understand the graphs in the task because they lacked descriptions.

    “While searching for the task-related items, he could not understand the graphs because they lacked descriptions (Figure 9).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Without appropriate labels of tabs to indicate their order, ID17-LO was confused about the tabs and had no clear idea of the overall structure of the paginated section.

    “Without appropriate labels of these tabs to indicate their order (e.g., 1 out of 4 pages), ID17-LO was confused about the tabs and had no clear idea of the overall structure of the paginated section.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In one case, ID10-AL found a requested World War II poster on war dogs in 1943 but only heard the word "armed" from VoiceOver when trying to access its content, making it challenging for her to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the poster.

    “For example, ID10-AL found the requested poster successfully when she was asked to find a World War II poster on war dogs in 1943 (Figure 8). However, she only heard the word “armed” from VoiceOver when trying to access the content of the found poster, making it challenging for her to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the content of the poster.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    ID17-LO could tell that there were tabs in the paginated section and that the first tab was selected, but he was unable to determine what those tabs were in the "Feature Content" sections, which led to confusion about the functions of the tabs.

    “According to ID17-LO, he could tell that there were tabs in the paginated section and that the first tab was selected. However, he was unable to determine what those tabs were in the “Feature Content” sections during the orientation task, which led to his confusion about the functions of the tabs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The absence of clear and comprehensive labeling results in confusion and presents a challenge for the participant to predict how to utilize the features presented to him.

    “The absence of clear and comprehensive labeling results in confusion and presents a challenge for the participant to predict how to utilize the features presented to him.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    AT24-ML found it hard to recognize the collection titles as the descriptions were narrated alongside the title without clear differentiation, leaving him guessing the title.

    “However, while going through the list of collections, he found it hard to recognize the collection titles as the descriptions were narrated alongside the title without clear differentiation, leaving him guessing the title (Figure 7).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both iOS and Android offer image description options, such as VoiceOver recognition and automatic TalkBack descriptions, but some BVI users need assistance activating them in different applications and devices.

    “Both iOS and Android offer image description options, such as VoiceOver recognition and automatic Talkback descriptions; nevertheless, some BVI users need assistance activating them in different applications and devices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    The toggle-based search feature is presented as an icon without an adequate label.

    “For example, the toggle-based search feature is presented as an icon without an adequate label.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    AP15-LO could obtain a description of the graph, but the explanation did not help her understand the graph.

    “On the other hand, AP15-LO could obtain a description of the graph, but the explanation did not help her understand the graph.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    AP7-LA interacted with an advanced search feature designed as a pop-up window; after selecting refinements, her screen reader focus navigated to the general search button without feedback, and she interacted with the search button outside the pop-up window, leading to results of a previous keyword search.

    “However, her screen reader focus navigated to the general search button without any feedback notifying her of her position. Although she believed she was interacting with the search button at the bottom of the pop-up window, she was interacting with the search button outside of the pop-up window. This led her to the results of a previous keyword search (Figure 11).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    Difficulty interacting with multilayered windows is associated with the existence of multiple windows that BVI users cannot detect and/or act upon.

    “In terms of structure, difficulty interacting with multilayered windows is associated with the existence of multiple windows that BVI users cannot detect and/or act upon.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    AT18-OL added that TalkBack did not give full descriptions, so he had to skip the graphs as he could not obtain more information.

    “AT18-OL added that Talkback did not give full descriptions, so he had to skip the graphs as he could not obtain more information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These visual cues are not accessible to users with visual impairments, making it difficult for them to understand how to use these features.

    “However, these cues are not accessible to users with visual impairments, making it difficult for them to understand how to use these features.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Graphs rely on various visual cues (e.g., color, shape, and position) to convey information, which makes it difficult for BVI users to understand their content with the screen reader.

    “Moreover, graphs rely on various visual cues (e.g., color, shape, and position) to convey information, which makes it difficult for BVI users to understand their content with the screen reader.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Visual interactions can be more challenging for BVI users because they may require more detailed text-based descriptions, the use of advanced screen reader features, or other assistive technologies.

    “These interactions can be more challenging for BVI users because they may require more detailed text-based descriptions, the use of advanced screen reader features (e.g., image description and screen recognition), or other assistive technologies (e.g., braille displays).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Multiple sessions of group discussions were held to scrutinize the identified help-seeking situations and associated design recommendations.

    “Multiple sessions of group discussions were held to scrutinize the identified help-seeking situations and associated design recommendations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Only the authors' prior pilot study reported help-seeking situations faced by BVI users in their interactions with DLs, but that study only involved one DL and used one device type.

    “Only our prior pilot study [2] reported help-seeking situations faced by BVI users in their interactions with DLs, but that study only involved one DL and used one device type.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [2] Xie, I., Wang, S., Lee, T.H., and Lee, H.S. (2023). Blind and visually impaired users’ interactions with digital libraries: Help-seeking situations in mobile and desktop environments. Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact., 1–19. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Inter-coder reliability was 0.81 based on Krippendorff's Alpha, indicating a good level of agreement among coders.

    “Inter-coder reliability was 0.81 based on Krippendorff’s Alpha [45,46], indicating a good level of agreement among coders.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [45] Krippendorff, 2004, Reliability in content analysis: Some common misconceptions and recommendations, Hum. Commun. Res.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [46] Marzi, 2024, K-Alpha Calculator—Krippendorff’s Alpha Calculator: A user-friendly tool for computing Krippendorff’s Alpha inter-rater reliability coefficient, MethodsX source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The toggle-based search situation arises from inappropriate labeling and a lack of intuitive design in the feature.

    “This situation arises from inappropriate labeling and a lack of intuitive design in the feature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisereasoning

    There is a need for further research to examine typical and unique help-seeking situations across diverse mobile platforms.

    “Although these studies provided useful insights about improving accessibility and usability of IR systems, including DLs, for BVI users, there is a need for further research to examine typical and unique help-seeking situations across diverse mobile platforms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    Graphs need more detailed descriptions than other types of visual items, such as images and videos, because they contain complex, multi-dimensional information such as points, trends, and axes.

    “Graphs need more detailed descriptions than other types of visual items, such as images and videos, since they contain complex, multi-dimensional information such as points, trends, and axes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board.

    “Since the study involved BVI users as a group of vulnerable participants, approval was sought and granted by the Institutional Review Board.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    This study specifies the help-seeking situations related to images and graphs in the context of DLs.

    “This study specifies the help-seeking situations related to images and graphs in the context of DLs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    In addition to short ALT text, DLs typically also provide metadata for images and graphs, which can provide more detailed information than ALT text.

    “In addition to short ALT text, DLs typically also provide metadata for images and graphs, which can provide more detailed information than ALT text.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    This problem is devastating for BVI users because they need assistance before they can move forward.

    “This problem is devastating for BVI users because they need assistance before they can move forward.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The discovery of these situations is the first step for researchers to understand the ways in which designs hinder BVI users' visual interactions with DLs and other systems.

    “The discovery of these situations is the first step for researchers to understand the ways in which designs hinder BVI users’ visual interactions with DLs and other systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Mobile and tablet devices generally have smaller screens, which can lead to the limited input and interaction capabilities of mobile phones and tablets.

    “Mobile and tablet devices generally have smaller screens, which can lead to the limited input and interaction capabilities of mobile phones and tablets.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Even though the situations were identified from the DL context, they could also occur in other systems or applications.

    “Even though the situations were identified from the DL context, they could also occur in other systems or applications.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Compared with images, it is more difficult for BVI users to recognize the content of graphs because of their diverse formats and domains.

    “Compared with images, it is more difficult for BVI users to recognize the content of graphs because of their diverse formats and domains.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Mobile screen readers, such as VoiceOver and TalkBack, have image description features, but BVI users may not be aware of them.

    “Moreover, mobile screen readers, such as VoiceOver and TalkBack, have image description features [6,19], but BVI users may not be aware of them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [6] Abraham, 2022, Smartphone usage among people living with severe visual impairment and blindness, Assist. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] Rodrigues, 2020, Open challenges of blind people using smartphones, Int. J. Hum. Comput. Interact. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In both DLs and online course platforms, BVI users could not interact with pop-up windows; instead, their foci were still on their original windows.

    “In both contexts, BVI users could not interact with pop-up windows. Instead, their foci were still on their original windows.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Alamri, 2020, Arab online courses and the disabled: An automated and user-testing approach, Sci. J. King Faisal. Univ. Humanit. Manag. Sci.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given

    Compared with other icon-based features/elements, video features are more complicated and dynamic.

    “For example, compared with other icon-based features/elements, video features are more complicated and dynamic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The online data collection method using virtual conferencing tools might have hindered the natural interactions of BVI users with DLs.

    “Second, the online data collection method using virtual conferencing tools, which allowed us to reach a wide range of BVI users across the nation, might have hindered the natural interactions of BVI users with DLs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    While prior research focused more on BVI users' problems in understanding the overall structure, this study specifically highlights difficulty interacting with multilayered windows in DLs.

    “While prior research focused more on BVI users’ problems in understanding the overall structure, this study specifically highlights difficulty interacting with multilayered windows in DLs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Some websites are not appropriately optimized to display properly on smaller screens, leading to poor user experience.

    “Also, some websites are not appropriately optimized to display properly on smaller screens, leading to poor user experience.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The uniqueness of visual content situations lies in the metadata of DLs and mobile screen readers' image description features.

    “Nevertheless, the uniqueness lies in the metadata of DLs and mobile screen readers’ image description features.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The lack of constraints designed for screen readers' interaction with pop-up windows allowed this situation to occur, leading the participant to misunderstand her current situation.

    “The lack of constraints designed for screen readers’ interaction with pop-up windows allowed this situation to occur, leading the participant to misunderstand her current situation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Help-seeking situations related to visual content are not unique in the mobile environment.

    “Second, help-seeking situations related to visual content are not unique in the mobile environment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It sets up the foundations for researchers and practitioners to further enhance DL design and other systems to support BVI users.

    “It sets up the foundations for researchers and practitioners to further enhance DL design and other systems to support BVI users.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
45 of 45

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The 120 recruited BVI participants are representative of BVI users who use mobile digital libraries.

    “The study recruited 120 BVI participants across the United States, with 30 in each of 4 groups representing different types of mobile devices (iPhone, iPad, Android phone, and Android tablet).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The six selected digital libraries are representative of mobile digital libraries.

    “Six DLs were selected for the study based on their diverse domains (e.g., history, art, science, and museum collections), diverse formats (e.g., text, image, video, and mathematical formulas), diverse types of hosting organizations, and different DL types (e.g., stand-alone, federated).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The four mobile device types (iPhone, iPad, Android phone, Android tablet) represent mobile platforms for BVI users.

    “The study recruited 120 BVI participants across the United States, with 30 in each of 4 groups representing different types of mobile devices (iPhone, iPad, Android phone, and Android tablet).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' think-aloud reports accurately reflect their help-seeking situations.

    “Third, think-aloud protocols were used when participants worked on the tasks. Specifically, they were instructed to talk continuously about their thoughts and actions in relation to their interactions with each DL, specifying their intentions for their actions, the problems they encountered, and their solutions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The proposed design recommendations will improve accessibility for BVI users.

    “Moreover, corresponding design recommendations are also proposed: placing meaningful labels for icon-based features in an easy-to-access location, offering intuitive and informative video descriptions for video players, providing structure information about a paginated section, separating collection/item titles from thumbnail descriptions, incorporating artificial intelligence image/graph recogn”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • None of the universities examined had publicly documented the use of accessibility-focused AI systems or tools.

    “Despite widespread recognition of AI's potential to assist with alt text generation [42], content remediation and real-time accessibility insights [5], and scientific visualizations accessibility [5,64], none of the universities examined had publicly documented the use of accessibility-focused AI systems or tools.”

    From Toward universal access to information: an analysis of digital accessibility policy readiness in U.S. public universities (2026) · cites this paper as [5]

    The citation to this paper is attached to the sentence’s earlier point about scientific-visualization accessibility, not to the quoted finding about universities. The paper’s Discussion (5.2, page unavailable) describes AI tools that can make diagrams accessible, but the passages examined do not report an audit of universities or their public documentation of accessibility-focused AI. Searched for universities examined and publicly documented AI use. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Participant ID example does not match the stated code list

    Minor

    The stated two-letter suffixes include DL but not LD. The example nevertheless uses LD for a participant assigned to the Library of Congress and DPLA.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 3

  1. Xie, I., and Matusiak, K. (2016). Discover Digital Libraries: Theory and Practice, Elsevier.
  2. Ara, J., and Sik-Lanyi, C. (2022, January 5–6). Artificial intelligence in web accessibility: Potentials and possible challenges. Proceedings of the IAC, Vienna, Austria.
  3. Wentzell, 2022, How can AccessiBe’s ADHD-friendly profile, content and color adjustments improve reading and comprehension for Philadelphia college students with ADHD?, J. Comput. Sci. Coll., 38, 203

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Authors
Xie, I., Choi, W., Wang, S., Lee, H. S., Hong, B. H., Wang, N.-C., & Cudjoe, E. K.
Affiliations
University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee (US)
Corresponding author
Xie, Iris
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Imaging
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2024-08-22
Volume
10
Issue
8
Pages
205
ISSN
2313-433X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/jimaging10080205
PMC
PMC11355365
OpenAlex
W4401793025
Semantic Scholar
713c6ddf3fc7bf3889a1d2e23f776e6ca2871642
Cited by
8
References
46
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 2
FWCI
16.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Imaging (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
Institute of Museum and Library Services (LG-252289-OLS-22)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Human Factors and Ergonomics › Digital Accessibility for Disabilities
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Usability and User Interface Design
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › Occupational Therapy › Assistive Technology in Communication and Mobility
Keywords
blind and visually impaired users, mobile accessibility, digital libraries, information retrieval, visual interaction, screen readers, assistive technology, design guidelines, audio description, mobile devices

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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