The DOI matches its Crossref record; 50 of the 50 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Towards fairer datasets: filtering and balancing the distribution of the people subtree in the ImageNet hierarchy
Open accessAbstract
Computer vision technology is being used by many but remains representative of only a few. People have reported misbehavior of computer vision models, including offensive prediction results and lower performance for underrepresented groups. Current computer vision models are typically developed using datasets consisting of manually annotated images or videos; the data and label distributions in these datasets are critical to the models' behavior. In this paper, we examine ImageNet, a large-scale ontology of images that has spurred the development of many modern computer vision methods. We consider three key factors within the person subtree of ImageNet that may lead to problematic behavior in downstream computer vision technology: (1) the stagnant concept vocabulary of WordNet, (2) the attempt at exhaustive illustration of all categories with images, and (3) the inequality of representation in the images within concepts. We seek to illuminate the root causes of these concerns and take the first steps to mitigate them constructively.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The data is mostly Western, and encodes several gender/ethnicity stereotypes with under-representation of certain groups [47].”
From Intriguing Properties of Vision Transformers (2021) · cites this paper as [47]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition
He, K., Zhang, X., Ren, S., & Sun, J. (2016) · 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2016.90 · Cited by 235,474
ImageNet: A large-scale hierarchical image database
Deng, J., Dong, W., Socher, R., Li, L.-J., Li, K., & Fei-Fei, L. (2009) · 2009 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2009.5206848 · Cited by 65,333
Self-citationYou Only Look Once: Unified, Real-Time Object Detection
Redmon, J., Divvala, S., Girshick, R., & Farhadi, A. (2016) · 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2016.91 · Cited by 53,803
Microsoft COCO: Common Objects in Context
Lin, T.-Y., Maire, M., Belongie, S., Hays, J., Perona, P., Ramanan, D., Dollár, P., & Zitnick, C. L. (2014) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-10602-1_48 · Cited by 45,460
ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge
Russakovsky, O., Deng, J., Su, H., Krause, J., Satheesh, S., Ma, S., Huang, Z., Karpathy, A., Khosla, A., Bernstein, M., et al. (2015) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1007/s11263-015-0816-y · Cited by 39,380
Self-citationGirshick, R. (2015) · 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2015.169 · Cited by 28,105
The pascal visual object classes (VOC) challenge
Everingham, M., Van Gool, L., Williams, C. K. I., Winn, J., & Zisserman, A. (2010) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1007/s11263-009-0275-4 · Cited by 19,599
Deep Learning Face Attributes in the Wild
Liu, Z., Luo, P., Wang, X., & Tang, X. (2015) · 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2015.425 · Cited by 7,747
Show and tell: A neural image caption generator
Vinyals, O., Toshev, A., Bengio, S., & Erhan, D. (2015) · 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2015.7298935 · Cited by 6,318
Visual Genome: Connecting Language and Vision Using Crowdsourced Dense Image Annotations
Krishna, R., Zhu, Y., Groth, O., Johnson, J., Hata, K., Kravitz, J., Chen, S., Kalantidis, Y., Li, L.-J., Shamma, D. A., et al. (2017) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1007/s11263-016-0981-7 · Cited by 5,107
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 29
- House U.S., 1990, 101st Congress, 2nd Session. 101 H.R. 2273. 1990
- House U.S., 1963, 88th Congress, 1st Session. 88 H.R. 6060. 1963
- House U.S., 1984, 98th Congress, 2nd Session. 98 H.R. 5490. 1984
- Solon Barocas Elizabeth Bradley Vasant Honavar and Foster Provost. 2017. Big data data science and civil rights. arXiv preprint arXiv:1706.03102 (2017). Solon Barocas Elizabeth Bradley Vasant Honavar and Foster Provost. 2017. Big data data science and civil rights. arXiv preprint arXiv:1706.03102 (2017). · arXiv
- Buolamwini Joy, 2018, Conference on fairness, accountability and transparency. 77--91
- Burns Kaylee, 2018, European Conference on Computer Vision.
- L Elisa Celis and Vijay Keswani. 2019. Implicit Diversity in Image Summarization. arXiv preprint arXiv:1901.10265 (2019). L Elisa Celis and Vijay Keswani. 2019. Implicit Diversity in Image Summarization. arXiv preprint arXiv:1901.10265 (2019). · arXiv
- Chang Angel X, 2015, Shapenet: An information-rich 3d model repository. arXiv preprint arXiv:1512.03012 · arXiv
- Terrance DeVries Ishan Misra Changhan Wang and Laurens van der Maaten. 2019. Does Object Recognition Work for Everyone? arXiv preprint arXiv:1906.02659 (2019). Terrance DeVries Ishan Misra Changhan Wang and Laurens van der Maaten. 2019. Does Object Recognition Work for Everyone? arXiv preprint arXiv:1906.02659 (2019). · arXiv
- Chris Dulhanty and Alexander Wong. 2019. Auditing ImageNet: Towards a Model-driven Framework for Annotating Demographic Attributes of Large-Scale Image Datasets. arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.01347 (2019). Chris Dulhanty and Alexander Wong. 2019. Auditing ImageNet: Towards a Model-driven Framework for Annotating Demographic Attributes of Large-Scale Image Datasets. arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.01347 (2019). · arXiv
- Harrison Edwards and Amos Storkey. 2016. Censoring representations with an adversary. In ICLR. Harrison Edwards and Amos Storkey. 2016. Censoring representations with an adversary. In ICLR.
- Gebru Timnit, 2018, Datasheets for Datasets. In Workshop on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency in Machine Learning.
- Moritz Hardt Eric Price Nati Srebro etal 2016. Equality of opportunity in supervised learning. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 3315--3323. Moritz Hardt Eric Price Nati Srebro et al. 2016. Equality of opportunity in supervised learning. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 3315--3323.
- Minyoung Huh Pulkit Agrawal and Alexei A Efros. 2016. What makes ImageNet good for transfer learning? arXiv preprint arXiv:1608.08614 (2016). Minyoung Huh Pulkit Agrawal and Alexei A Efros. 2016. What makes ImageNet good for transfer learning? arXiv preprint arXiv:1608.08614 (2016). · arXiv
- Kleinberg Jon, 2017, Proc. 8th Conf. on Innovations in Theoretical Computer Science (ITCS).
- Alex Krizhevsky Ilya Sutskever and Geoffrey E Hinton. 2012. ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 1097--1105. Alex Krizhevsky Ilya Sutskever and Geoffrey E Hinton. 2012. ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 1097--1105.
- Alina Kuznetsova Hassan Rom Neil Alldrin Jasper Uijlings Ivan Krasin Jordi Pont-Tuset Shahab Kamali Stefan Popov Matteo Malloci Tom Duerig etal 2018. The Open Images dataset v4: Unified image classification object detection and visual relationship detection at scale. arXiv preprint arXiv:1811.00982 (2018). Alina Kuznetsova Hassan Rom Neil Alldrin Jasper Uijlings Ivan Krasin Jordi Pont-Tuset Shahab Kamali Stefan Popov Matteo Malloci Tom Duerig et al. 2018. The Open Images dataset v4: Unified image classification object detection and visual relationship detection at scale. arXiv preprint arXiv:1811.00982 (2018). · arXiv
- David Madras Elliot Creager Toniann Pitassi and Richard Zemel. 2018. Learning adversarially fair and transferable representations. arXiv preprint arXiv:1802.06309 (2018). David Madras Elliot Creager Toniann Pitassi and Richard Zemel. 2018. Learning adversarially fair and transferable representations. arXiv preprint arXiv:1802.06309 (2018). · arXiv
- George A Miller. 1998. WordNet: An electronic lexical database. MIT press. George A Miller. 1998. WordNet: An electronic lexical database. MIT press.
- Mitchell Margaret, 2018, Model Cards for Model Reporting. In ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency.
- Safiya Umoja Noble. 2018. Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. nyu Press. Safiya Umoja Noble. 2018. Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. nyu Press.
- Geoff Pleiss Manish Raghavan Felix Wu Jon Kleinberg and Kilian Q Weinberger. 2017. On fairness and calibration. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 5680--5689. Geoff Pleiss Manish Raghavan Felix Wu Jon Kleinberg and Kilian Q Weinberger. 2017. On fairness and calibration. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 5680--5689.
- Ryu Hee Jung, 2018, Proceedings of FATML.
- Shankar Shreya, 2017, NeurIPS workshop: Machine Learning for the Developing World.
- Karen Simonyan and Andrew Zisserman. 2014. Two-stream convolutional networks for action recognition in videos. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 568--576. Karen Simonyan and Andrew Zisserman. 2014. Two-stream convolutional networks for action recognition in videos. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 568--576.
- Karen Simonyan and Andrew Zisserman. 2014. Very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.1556 (2014). Karen Simonyan and Andrew Zisserman. 2014. Very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.1556 (2014). · arXiv
- Welinder P., 2010, Technical Report CNS-TR-2010-001. California Institute of Technology.
- Muhammad Bilal Zafar Isabel Valera Manuel Gomez Rodriguez and Krishna P Gummadi. 2015. Fairness constraints: Mechanisms for fair classification. arXiv preprint arXiv:1507.05259 (2015). Muhammad Bilal Zafar Isabel Valera Manuel Gomez Rodriguez and Krishna P Gummadi. 2015. Fairness constraints: Mechanisms for fair classification. arXiv preprint arXiv:1507.05259 (2015). · arXiv
- Zemel Rich, 2013, International Conference on Machine Learning. 325--333
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–254 of 254
BiFaceGAN: Bimodal Face Image Synthesis
Tomašević, D., Peer, P., & Štruc, V. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-2059-0_11 · Cited by 1
Data Collection-Free Masked Video Modeling
Ishikawa, Y., Kondo, M., & Aoki, Y. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-73247-8_3 · Cited by 1
Schäfer, M. (2021) · Temes de disseny · doi:10.46467/tdd37.2021.214-225 · Cited by 1
Military Dataset Processing Approaches or Trauma Risk Mitigation in Machine Learning Practitioners
Breton, M., Lavigne, V., Djaffri, M., & Dionne, M. (2022) · Journal of Defence & Security Technologies · doi:10.46713/jdst.004.01 · Cited by 1
Taxonomic Classification of Objects with Convolutional Neural Networks
Yang, S., Fox, G., & Na, B. (2020) · IEEE International Conference on Big Data (BigData) · doi:10.1109/bigdata50022.2020.9378244
The Practical Applications of Artificial Intelligence and the Future of ViEW
Kato, K., Nishiyama, M., Kawanishi, R., & Kataoka, H. (2021) · Journal of the Japan Society for Precision Engineering · doi:10.2493/jjspe.87.783
YAMADA, R., Suzuki, R., Nakamura, A., & Kataoka, H. (2021) · Journal of the Japan Society for Precision Engineering · doi:10.2493/jjspe.87.1013
de Oliveira, D. O. A., & de Castro, J. P. (2021) · Congresso Brasileiro de Agroinformática (SBIAGRO) · doi:10.5753/sbiagro.2021.18405
Design Flow and Implementation of a Vision-Based Gesture-Controlled Drone
Findelair, A., Yu, X., & Saniie, J. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Electro Information Technology · doi:10.1109/eit53891.2022.9813802
Revealing Doubtful Data in 200k Images via Re-annotation Workshop by Researcher Community
Suzuki, R., & Kataoka, H. (2022) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19682-9_88
RealPatch: A Statistical Matching Framework for Model Patching with Real Samples
Romiti, S., Inskip, C., Sharmanska, V., & Quadrianto, N. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-19806-9_9
Barlas, P., Krahn, M., Kleanthous, S., Kyriakou, K., & Otterbacher, J. (2022) · Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media · doi:10.1609/icwsm.v16i1.19269
A General Neural Network Deployment Framework for Edge Devices
Wang, J., Wang, Y., Lou, W., Wei, W., & Lv, J. (2022) · Advances in transdisciplinary engineering · doi:10.3233/atde221161
Human Imperceptible Attacks and Applications to Improve Fairness
Hua, X., Xu, H., Blanchet, J., & Nguyen, V. A. (2022) · Winter Simulation Conference · doi:10.1109/wsc57314.2022.10015376
AUTOMATIC DETECTION OF ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE BASED ON ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE
Benba, A., & Kerchaoui, A. (2023) · Informatyka Automatyka Pomiary w Gospodarce i Ochronie Środowiska · doi:10.35784/iapgos.3383
Exploring Out-of-Distribution in Image Classification for Neural Networks Via Concepts
Holmberg, L. (2023) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-3243-6_13
Exploring the Potential of Neural Dataset Search
Yamada, R., Shinoda, R., & Kataoka, H. (2023) · IEEE/CVF Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW) · doi:10.1109/cvprw59228.2023.00220
Color-Dependent Prediction Stability of Popular CNN Image Classification Architectures
Mertens, L., Yargholi, E., den Stock, J. V., de Beeck, H. O., & Vennekens, J. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-44207-0_41
Negative Learning to Prevent Undesirable Misclassification
Egashira, K., Miyai, A., Yu, Q., Irie, G., & Aizawa, K. (2023) · IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems · doi:10.1587/transinf.2023edl8056
Cartoon single-image super-resolution approach based on generative adversarial network
Wang, G. X., Shin, S.-Y., & Kim, J.-C. (2024) · Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science · doi:10.11591/ijeecs.v33.i3.pp1557-1566
PolarDB: Formula-Driven Dataset for Pre-Training Trajectory Encoders
Miyamoto, S., Yagi, T., Makimoto, Y., Ukai, M., Ushiku, Y., Hashimoto, A., & Inoue, N. (2024) · IEEE International Conference on Acoustics Speech and Signal Processing · doi:10.1109/icassp48485.2024.10448448
Big Data Assisted Object Detection with Privacy Protection
Zhang, J., Wang, X., & Lin, H. (2023) · IEEE International Conference on Trust, Security and Privacy in Computing and Communications (TrustCom) · doi:10.1109/trustcom60117.2023.00037
Incremental Training of Convolutional Neural Networks for Recognition of Marking Symbols
Mareev, A., & Orlov, A. (2024) · International Conference on Industrial Engineering, Applications and Manufacturing (ICIEAM) · doi:10.1109/icieam60818.2024.10553947
Jun-li, W., LENG, W., Wang, S., Zhang, T., & Jin, J. (2024) · Journal of Mechanics in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1142/s021951942440030x
Image-Based Material Editing Using Perceptual Attributes or Ground-Truth Parameters
Stenvers, V., & Vangorp, P. (2024) · doi:10.1145/3697294.3697301
Laux, J. M., Stephany, F., & Liefgreen, A. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4974604
Striving for open-source and equitable speech-to-speech translation
Alumäe, T., & Koenecke, A. (2025) · Nature · doi:10.1038/d41586-024-04095-6
Societal Bias in Image Captioning: Identifying and Measuring Bias Amplification
HIROTA, Y., Nakashima, Y., & García, N. (2025) · IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems · doi:10.1587/transinf.2024edp7116
Mitigating Gender Bias Amplification in Image Captioning
HIROTA, Y., Nakashima, Y., & García, N. (2025) · IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems · doi:10.1587/transinf.2024edp7164
Behavioral Implications and Emerging Legal Issues in Innovative and Digital Product Design
Schmidt, R. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009279079.016
The Implications of Emerging Product Design and Business Models
Elvy, S.-A., & Kim, N. S. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009279079.010
Continuously Visual Pre-training with Artificially Generated and Real Images
MATSUO, Y., Hayamizu, R., Nakamura, S., Inoue, N., Yokota, R., Kataoka, H., & Nakamura, A. (2025) · Journal of the Japan Society for Precision Engineering · doi:10.2493/jjspe.91.425
Feng, H., Hu, C., & Cheng, D. (2025) · Journal of Electronic Imaging · doi:10.1117/1.jei.34.2.023022
Is ImageNet Pre-Training Fair in Image Classification?
YAMADA, R., Takahashi, R., Ohtani, G., Erika, M. O. R. I., Aoki, Y., & Kataoka, H. (2025) · Journal of the Japan Society for Precision Engineering · doi:10.2493/jjspe.91.510
Data Preprocessing for Culturally Competent Machine Learning in Social Robotics
Petrocco, E. U., Sgorbissa, A., & Oneto, L. (2025) · Mechanisms and machine science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-91179-8_18
Skin Disease Prediction Using Machine Learning Techniques
Patil, M., Shinde, N., Sharma, R. K., Kadam, S., & Kashte, S. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-4241-0_12
Machine Learning Algorithms for Individuals With Visual Impairments
Aslam, M., Revathy, G., & Anuradha, M. (2025) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3693-9445-8.ch011
Claucich, E., Hooker, S., Milone, D. H., Ferrante, E., & Echeveste, R. (2025) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3715275.3732200
Social Bias in Vision Transformers: A Comparative Study Across Architectures and Learning Paradigms
Tsurumi, T., & Beretta, E. (2025) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3715275.3732189
Tensor Train Recurrent Network Language Model Prediction
Murua, A., Ramakrishnan, R. K., Li, X., Yang, R. H., & Nia, V. P. (2025) · Stat · doi:10.1002/sta4.70116 · Cited by 1
DPSN: Dual Prior Knowledge Induced Tactile paving and Obstacle Joint Segmentation Network
Song, Y., Li, W., Zhang, Z., Wu, Y. F., Jin, Z., Wang, C., & He, G. (2025) · IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems (IROS) · doi:10.1109/iros60139.2025.11246881
Murakami, K., Yamaguchi, Y., Kato, Y., Ishikawa, K., Tanibata, N., Takeda, H., Nakayama, M., & Karasuyama, M. (2025) · Digital Discovery · doi:10.1039/d5dd00232j
Ye, W., Yuan, J., Hu, D., & Zhou, J. (2025) · International Conference on Advanced Cloud and Big Data · doi:10.1109/cbd69312.2025.00014
(Doing) Computational History: The Role of Data Work in Computational Approaches
Lang, S. (2026) · Histories · doi:10.3390/histories6020026
On the evaluation and generalization of visual representations
Sarıyıldız, M. B. (2023) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/3a865f57z2943z4e75z8ecdz20502b52d317
Enjeux éthiques de l'apprentissage automatique et du Big Data : une perspective herméneutique
Demichelis, R. (2023) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/c644fb5azca2bz4644zbed6z0e4f6b41dfe0
Unfairness in Information Retrieval
Mishra, H., & Soundarajan, S. (2026) · SpringerBriefs in intelligent systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-24145-0_2
Olarewaju, S., Sadiq, A. S., Kaiwartya, O., & Konios, A. (2026) · Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy · doi:10.3390/jcp6030103
The Consensus Trap: Dissecting Subjectivity and the “Ground Truth” Illusion in Data Annotation
Munir, S., Mah, B., Kalsi, K., Kapania, S., Posada, J., Law, E., Wang, D., & Ahmed, S. I. (2026) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3805689.3806510 · Cited by 1
Imagination Will Not Be Automized: On AI Image Generators and Epistemic Oppression
Abel, S. (2026) · Constellations · doi:10.1111/1467-8675.70065
Promptable imagination: language and the new epistemic order of AI images generation
Musih, N., & Fisher, E. (2026) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-026-03313-1
Giorgio, A. D. (2026) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-026-03384-0
Data Quality: Models, Measures, and Tools
Chen, H., 沙科伟, Zhou, Y., & Tu, F. (2026) · Springer handbooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-92372-2_55
Metadata
- Authors
- Yang, K., Qinami, K., Fei-Fei, L., Deng, J., & Russakovsky, O.
- Affiliations
- Princeton University (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2020-01-27
- Pages
- 547-558
- OpenAlex
- W4288083803
- Cited by
- 254
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 9
- FWCI
- 40.71
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Center for Hierarchical Manufacturing, National Science Foundation (1763642)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Neural Network Applications
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Domain Adaptation and Few-Shot Learning
- Keywords
- ImageNet, underrepresented groups, WordNet, label distribution, data bias
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review