The DOI matches its Crossref record; 50 of the 50 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Towards fairer datasets: filtering and balancing the distribution of the people subtree in the ImageNet hierarchy
Open accessAbstract
Computer vision technology is being used by many but remains representative of only a few. People have reported misbehavior of computer vision models, including offensive prediction results and lower performance for underrepresented groups. Current computer vision models are typically developed using datasets consisting of manually annotated images or videos; the data and label distributions in these datasets are critical to the models' behavior. In this paper, we examine ImageNet, a large-scale ontology of images that has spurred the development of many modern computer vision methods. We consider three key factors within the person subtree of ImageNet that may lead to problematic behavior in downstream computer vision technology: (1) the stagnant concept vocabulary of WordNet, (2) the attempt at exhaustive illustration of all categories with images, and (3) the inequality of representation in the images within concepts. We seek to illuminate the root causes of these concerns and take the first steps to mitigate them constructively.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The data is mostly Western, and encodes several gender/ethnicity stereotypes with under-representation of certain groups [47].”
From Intriguing Properties of Vision Transformers (2021) · cites this paper as [47]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition
He, K., Zhang, X., Ren, S., & Sun, J. (2016) · 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2016.90 · Cited by 235,474
ImageNet: A large-scale hierarchical image database
Deng, J., Dong, W., Socher, R., Li, L.-J., Li, K., & Fei-Fei, L. (2009) · 2009 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2009.5206848 · Cited by 65,333
Self-citationYou Only Look Once: Unified, Real-Time Object Detection
Redmon, J., Divvala, S., Girshick, R., & Farhadi, A. (2016) · 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2016.91 · Cited by 53,803
Microsoft COCO: Common Objects in Context
Lin, T.-Y., Maire, M., Belongie, S., Hays, J., Perona, P., Ramanan, D., Dollár, P., & Zitnick, C. L. (2014) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-10602-1_48 · Cited by 45,460
ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge
Russakovsky, O., Deng, J., Su, H., Krause, J., Satheesh, S., Ma, S., Huang, Z., Karpathy, A., Khosla, A., Bernstein, M., et al. (2015) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1007/s11263-015-0816-y · Cited by 39,380
Self-citationGirshick, R. (2015) · 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2015.169 · Cited by 28,105
The pascal visual object classes (VOC) challenge
Everingham, M., Van Gool, L., Williams, C. K. I., Winn, J., & Zisserman, A. (2010) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1007/s11263-009-0275-4 · Cited by 19,599
Deep Learning Face Attributes in the Wild
Liu, Z., Luo, P., Wang, X., & Tang, X. (2015) · 2015 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2015.425 · Cited by 7,747
Show and tell: A neural image caption generator
Vinyals, O., Toshev, A., Bengio, S., & Erhan, D. (2015) · 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2015.7298935 · Cited by 6,318
Visual Genome: Connecting Language and Vision Using Crowdsourced Dense Image Annotations
Krishna, R., Zhu, Y., Groth, O., Johnson, J., Hata, K., Kravitz, J., Chen, S., Kalantidis, Y., Li, L.-J., Shamma, D. A., et al. (2017) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1007/s11263-016-0981-7 · Cited by 5,107
Self-citationThe validity and practicality of sun-reactive skin types I through VI
Fitzpatrick, T. B. (1988) · Archives of Dermatology · doi:10.1001/archderm.1988.01670060015008 · Cited by 4,339
Places: A 10 Million Image Database for Scene Recognition
Zhou, B., Lapedriza, A., Khosla, A., Oliva, A., & Torralba, A. (2018) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2017.2723009 · Cited by 4,042
Dwork, C., Hardt, M., Pitassi, T., Reingold, O., & Zemel, R. (2012) · Proceedings of the 3rd Innovations in Theoretical Computer Science Conference · doi:10.1145/2090236.2090255 · Cited by 3,501
Barocas, S., & Selbst, A. D. (2014) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2477899 · Cited by 3,048
Concreteness, imagery, and meaningfulness values for 925 nouns.
Paivio, A., Yuille, J. C., & Madigan, S. A. (1968) · Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025327 · Cited by 2,855
Torralba, A., & Efros, A. A. (2011) · CVPR 2011 · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2011.5995347 · Cited by 2,440
80 Million Tiny Images: A Large Data Set for Nonparametric Object and Scene Recognition
Torralba, A., Fergus, R., & Freeman, W. T. (2008) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2008.128 · Cited by 1,921
Certifying and Removing Disparate Impact
Feldman, M., Friedler, S. A., Moeller, J., Scheidegger, C., & Venkatasubramanian, S. (2015) · Proceedings of the 21th ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining · doi:10.1145/2783258.2783311 · Cited by 1,827
Mitigating Unwanted Biases with Adversarial Learning
Zhang, B. H., Lemoine, B., & Mitchell, M. (2018) · Proceedings of the 2018 AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society · doi:10.1145/3278721.3278779 · Cited by 1,387
Large-Scale Long-Tailed Recognition in an Open World
Liu, Z., Miao, Z., Zhan, X., Wang, J., Gong, B., & Yu, S. X. (2019) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2019.00264 · Cited by 1,198
Deep convolutional neural fields for depth estimation from a single image
Liu, F., Shen, C., & Lin, G. (2015) · 2015 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2015.7299152 · Cited by 892
Age-of-acquisition, imagery, concreteness, familiarity, and ambiguity measures for 1,944 words
Gilhooly, K. J., & Logie, R. H. (1980) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/bf03201693 · Cited by 868
Age and Gender Estimation of Unfiltered Faces
Eidinger, E., Enbar, R., & Hassner, T. (2014) · IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security · doi:10.1109/tifs.2014.2359646 · Cited by 830
Men Also Like Shopping: Reducing Gender Bias Amplification using Corpus-level Constraints
Zhao, J., Wang, T., Yatskar, M., Ordonez, V., & Chang, K.-W. (2017) · Proceedings of the 2017 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing · doi:10.18653/v1/d17-1323 · Cited by 829
Wang, Y., & Kosinski, M. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000098 · Cited by 766 · cited 1×
“Examples range from quantifying beauty [47] to predicting sexual orientation [76] to (arguably) annotating gender [25, 42].”
BackgroundThree naive Bayes approaches for discrimination-free classification.
Calders, T., & Verwer, S. (2010) · Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery · doi:10.1007/s10618-010-0190-x · Cited by 764
Pushing the frontiers of unconstrained face detection and recognition: IARPA Janus Benchmark A
Klare, B. F., Klein, B., Taborsky, E., Blanton, A., Cheney, J., Allen, K., Grother, P. J., Mah, A., Burge, M. J., & Jain, A. K. (2015) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2015.7298803 · Cited by 706
Discrimination-aware data mining
Pedreshi, D., Ruggieri, S., & Turini, F. (2008) · Proceedings of the 14th ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining · doi:10.1145/1401890.1401959 · Cited by 676
Demographics and Dynamics of Mechanical Turk Workers
Difallah, D. E., Filatova, E., & Ipeirotis, P. G. (2018) · ACM International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining (WSDM) · doi:10.1145/3159652.3159661 · Cited by 512
Unequal Representation and Gender Stereotypes in Image Search Results for Occupations
Kay, M., Matuszek, C., & Munson, S. A. (2015) · Proceedings of the 33rd Annual ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/2702123.2702520 · Cited by 509
Building Classifiers with Independency Constraints
Calders, T., Kamiran, F., & Pechenizkiy, M. (2009) · 2009 IEEE International Conference on Data Mining Workshops · doi:10.1109/icdmw.2009.83 · Cited by 468 · cited 1×
“Researchers have proposed multiple fairness metrics including statistical parity [12, 13, 24, 39], disparate impact [27, 80], equalized odds [34] and individual fairness [23], and analyzed the relationship between them [43, 60].”
BackgroundClassifying without discriminating
Kamiran, F., & Calders, T. (2009) · 2009 2nd International Conference on Computer, Control and Communication · doi:10.1109/ic4.2009.4909197 · Cited by 409
Women Also Snowboard: Overcoming Bias in Captioning Models
Hendricks, L. A., Burns, K., Saenko, K., Darrell, T., & Rohrbach, A. (2018) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-01219-9_47 · Cited by 404
Bird, H., Franklin, S., & Howard, D. (2001) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03195349 · Cited by 398
Fairness-aware Learning through Regularization Approach
Kamishima, T., Akaho, S., & Sakuma, J. (2011) · IEEE ... International Conference on Data Mining workshops · doi:10.1109/icdmw.2011.83 · Cited by 383
Imageability ratings for 3,000 monosyllabic words
Cortese, M. J., & Fugett, A. D. (2004) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03195585 · Cited by 335
Altarriba, J., Bauer, L., & Benvenuto, C. (1999) · Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers · doi:10.3758/bf03200738 · Cited by 330
Abstractness, imagery, and meaningfulness in paired-associate learning
Paivio, A. (1965) · Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0022-5371(65)80064-0 · Cited by 317
50 Years of Test (Un)fairness: Lessons for Machine Learning
Hutchinson, B., & Mitchell, M. (2019) · Proceedings of the Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency · doi:10.1145/3287560.3287600 · Cited by 297
Racial Influence on Automated Perceptions of EmotionsPreprint
Rhue, L. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3281765 · Cited by 190
ConvNets and ImageNet Beyond Accuracy: Understanding Mistakes and Uncovering Biases
Stock, P., & Cissé, M. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-01231-1_31 · Cited by 185
Measurement of skin color: practical application and theoretical considerations.
Takiwaki, H. (1998) · PubMed · Cited by 133
Dewaele, J. (2016) · Journal of Pragmatics · doi:10.1016/j.pragma.2016.01.009 · Cited by 111
Inside the image factory: stock photography and cultural production
Frosh, P. (2001) · Media Culture & Society · doi:10.1177/016344301023005005 · Cited by 67
Yee, L. T. S. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0174569 · Cited by 55
Rating Offensive Words in Three Television Program Contexts
Sapolsky, B. S., Shafer, D. M., & Kaye, B. K. (2010) · Mass Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/15205430903359693 · Cited by 41
When corporations come to define the visual politics of gender
Aiello, G., & Woodhouse, A. (2016) · Journal of Language and Politics · doi:10.1075/jlp.15.3.08aie · Cited by 32
Frosh, P. (2002) · Journal of Consumer Culture · doi:10.1177/146954050200200202 · Cited by 16
108th Congress 1st Session H. R. 953
(2003) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e310362005-001 · Cited by 6
International Journal of Cosmetic Science
(2010) · International Journal of Cosmetic Science · doi:10.1111/(issn)1468-2494 · Cited by 5
Research works printed but not linked: 29
- House U.S., 1990, 101st Congress, 2nd Session. 101 H.R. 2273. 1990
- House U.S., 1963, 88th Congress, 1st Session. 88 H.R. 6060. 1963
- House U.S., 1984, 98th Congress, 2nd Session. 98 H.R. 5490. 1984
- Solon Barocas Elizabeth Bradley Vasant Honavar and Foster Provost. 2017. Big data data science and civil rights. arXiv preprint arXiv:1706.03102 (2017). Solon Barocas Elizabeth Bradley Vasant Honavar and Foster Provost. 2017. Big data data science and civil rights. arXiv preprint arXiv:1706.03102 (2017). · arXiv
- Buolamwini Joy, 2018, Conference on fairness, accountability and transparency. 77--91
- Burns Kaylee, 2018, European Conference on Computer Vision.
- L Elisa Celis and Vijay Keswani. 2019. Implicit Diversity in Image Summarization. arXiv preprint arXiv:1901.10265 (2019). L Elisa Celis and Vijay Keswani. 2019. Implicit Diversity in Image Summarization. arXiv preprint arXiv:1901.10265 (2019). · arXiv
- Chang Angel X, 2015, Shapenet: An information-rich 3d model repository. arXiv preprint arXiv:1512.03012 · arXiv
- Terrance DeVries Ishan Misra Changhan Wang and Laurens van der Maaten. 2019. Does Object Recognition Work for Everyone? arXiv preprint arXiv:1906.02659 (2019). Terrance DeVries Ishan Misra Changhan Wang and Laurens van der Maaten. 2019. Does Object Recognition Work for Everyone? arXiv preprint arXiv:1906.02659 (2019). · arXiv
- Chris Dulhanty and Alexander Wong. 2019. Auditing ImageNet: Towards a Model-driven Framework for Annotating Demographic Attributes of Large-Scale Image Datasets. arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.01347 (2019). Chris Dulhanty and Alexander Wong. 2019. Auditing ImageNet: Towards a Model-driven Framework for Annotating Demographic Attributes of Large-Scale Image Datasets. arXiv preprint arXiv:1905.01347 (2019). · arXiv
- Harrison Edwards and Amos Storkey. 2016. Censoring representations with an adversary. In ICLR. Harrison Edwards and Amos Storkey. 2016. Censoring representations with an adversary. In ICLR.
- Gebru Timnit, 2018, Datasheets for Datasets. In Workshop on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency in Machine Learning.
- Moritz Hardt Eric Price Nati Srebro etal 2016. Equality of opportunity in supervised learning. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 3315--3323. Moritz Hardt Eric Price Nati Srebro et al. 2016. Equality of opportunity in supervised learning. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 3315--3323.
- Minyoung Huh Pulkit Agrawal and Alexei A Efros. 2016. What makes ImageNet good for transfer learning? arXiv preprint arXiv:1608.08614 (2016). Minyoung Huh Pulkit Agrawal and Alexei A Efros. 2016. What makes ImageNet good for transfer learning? arXiv preprint arXiv:1608.08614 (2016). · arXiv
- Kleinberg Jon, 2017, Proc. 8th Conf. on Innovations in Theoretical Computer Science (ITCS).
- Alex Krizhevsky Ilya Sutskever and Geoffrey E Hinton. 2012. ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 1097--1105. Alex Krizhevsky Ilya Sutskever and Geoffrey E Hinton. 2012. ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 1097--1105.
- Alina Kuznetsova Hassan Rom Neil Alldrin Jasper Uijlings Ivan Krasin Jordi Pont-Tuset Shahab Kamali Stefan Popov Matteo Malloci Tom Duerig etal 2018. The Open Images dataset v4: Unified image classification object detection and visual relationship detection at scale. arXiv preprint arXiv:1811.00982 (2018). Alina Kuznetsova Hassan Rom Neil Alldrin Jasper Uijlings Ivan Krasin Jordi Pont-Tuset Shahab Kamali Stefan Popov Matteo Malloci Tom Duerig et al. 2018. The Open Images dataset v4: Unified image classification object detection and visual relationship detection at scale. arXiv preprint arXiv:1811.00982 (2018). · arXiv
- David Madras Elliot Creager Toniann Pitassi and Richard Zemel. 2018. Learning adversarially fair and transferable representations. arXiv preprint arXiv:1802.06309 (2018). David Madras Elliot Creager Toniann Pitassi and Richard Zemel. 2018. Learning adversarially fair and transferable representations. arXiv preprint arXiv:1802.06309 (2018). · arXiv
- George A Miller. 1998. WordNet: An electronic lexical database. MIT press. George A Miller. 1998. WordNet: An electronic lexical database. MIT press.
- Mitchell Margaret, 2018, Model Cards for Model Reporting. In ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability and Transparency.
- Safiya Umoja Noble. 2018. Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. nyu Press. Safiya Umoja Noble. 2018. Algorithms of oppression: How search engines reinforce racism. nyu Press.
- Geoff Pleiss Manish Raghavan Felix Wu Jon Kleinberg and Kilian Q Weinberger. 2017. On fairness and calibration. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 5680--5689. Geoff Pleiss Manish Raghavan Felix Wu Jon Kleinberg and Kilian Q Weinberger. 2017. On fairness and calibration. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. 5680--5689.
- Ryu Hee Jung, 2018, Proceedings of FATML.
- Shankar Shreya, 2017, NeurIPS workshop: Machine Learning for the Developing World.
- Karen Simonyan and Andrew Zisserman. 2014. Two-stream convolutional networks for action recognition in videos. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 568--576. Karen Simonyan and Andrew Zisserman. 2014. Two-stream convolutional networks for action recognition in videos. In Advances in neural information processing systems. 568--576.
- Karen Simonyan and Andrew Zisserman. 2014. Very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.1556 (2014). Karen Simonyan and Andrew Zisserman. 2014. Very deep convolutional networks for large-scale image recognition. arXiv preprint arXiv:1409.1556 (2014). · arXiv
- Welinder P., 2010, Technical Report CNS-TR-2010-001. California Institute of Technology.
- Muhammad Bilal Zafar Isabel Valera Manuel Gomez Rodriguez and Krishna P Gummadi. 2015. Fairness constraints: Mechanisms for fair classification. arXiv preprint arXiv:1507.05259 (2015). Muhammad Bilal Zafar Isabel Valera Manuel Gomez Rodriguez and Krishna P Gummadi. 2015. Fairness constraints: Mechanisms for fair classification. arXiv preprint arXiv:1507.05259 (2015). · arXiv
- Zemel Rich, 2013, International Conference on Machine Learning. 325--333
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Kirillov, A., Mintun, E., Ravi, N., Mao, H., Rolland, C., Gustafson, L., Xiao, T., Whitehead, S., Berg, A. C., Lo, W.-Y., et al. (2023) · 2023 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv51070.2023.00371 · Cited by 11,953
“We repeat the analysis for perceived age in Table 2 (bottom left), noting that those who are perceived to be younger and older have been shown to be underrepresented in large-scale datasets [110].”
MethodAdvances, challenges and opportunities in creating data for trustworthy AI
Liang, W., Tadesse, G. A., Ho, D. E., Fei-Fei, L., Zaharia, M., Zhang, C., & Zou, J. (2022) · Nature Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1038/s42256-022-00516-1 · Cited by 617
Self-citationMachine learning for high-entropy alloys: Progress, challenges and opportunities
Liu, X., Zhang, J., & Pei, Z. (2022) · Progress in Materials Science · doi:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2022.101018 · Cited by 434
Intriguing Properties of Vision Transformers
Naseer, M., Ranasinghe, K., Khan, S., Hayat, M., Khan, F. S., & Yang, M.-H. (2021) · arXiv · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2105.10497 · Cited by 431
Multi-Modal Knowledge Graph Construction and Application: A Survey
Zhu, X., Li, Z., Wang, X., Jiang, X., Sun, P., Wang, X., Xiao, Y., & Yuan, N. J. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering · doi:10.1109/tkde.2022.3224228 · Cited by 353
Metadata
- Authors
- Yang, K., Qinami, K., Fei-Fei, L., Deng, J., & Russakovsky, O.
- Affiliations
- Princeton University (US)
- Stanford University (US)
- Venue
- Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency
- Publisher
- ACM
- Published
- 2020-01-27
- Pages
- 547-558
- OpenAlex
- W4288083803
- Cited by
- 254
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 37 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 48 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 9
- FWCI
- 40.71
- Type
- conference paper
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Funders
- Center for Hierarchical Manufacturing, National Science Foundation (1763642)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Ethics and Social Impacts of AI
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Neural Network Applications
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Domain Adaptation and Few-Shot Learning
- Keywords
- ImageNet, underrepresented groups, WordNet, label distribution, data bias
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review