“I Felt Like I Was in a Fishbowl”: Lived Experience with Telepresence and Non-Visible Disabilities in Higher Education

May combine two claims.

Thus, most authors had an established positionality as disabled and/or neurodivergent, and we had established a connection with the majority of the students in the study.

“Thus, most authors had an established positionality as disabled and/or neurodivergent, and we had established a connection with the majority of the students in the study.”

May combine two claims.

Thus, half of our students had at least one reported disability and/or neurodivergence with some experiencing disabilities from multiple categories.

“Thus, half of our students had at least one reported disability and/or neurodivergence with some experiencing disabilities from multiple categoriesfoot_1 .”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

At least one telepresence robot was used in every week's session to support students' learning and social activities.

“At least one telepresence robot was used in every week's session to support students' learning and social activities (see Table 1 for specific brand deployed in the class).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All participants with mental health conditions wanted to member check.

“All participants with mental health conditions wanted to member check.”

May combine two claims.

Our research found that the proportion of disabled students in this study was significantly higher than university averages: three students identified as having mental health conditions, one identified as having ASD and ADHD, one as having ADHD, and one as having a medical disability.

“Our research found that the proportion of disabled students in this study was significantly higher than university averages: three students identified as having mental health conditions, one identified as having ASD and ADHD, one as having ADHD, and one as having a medical disability.”

May combine two claims.

While we studied a mixed-ability class, over half of the research team members were identified as disabled and/or neurodivergent, a proportion that well exceeds our institutional norms.

“While we studied a mixedability class, over half of the research team members were identified as disabled and/or neurodivergent, a proportion that well exceeds our institutional norms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The participant was a distance learner and also a type 1 diabetic, and by the end of the study, they identified as disabled.

“This participant was a distance learner and also a “type 1” diabetic, and by the end of the study, they identified as disabled (though initially, they did not realize that UK law included diabetes as a disability, a topic that came up organically in class).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A participant with disclosed neurodivergence emphasized the importance of predictability.

“A participant with disclosed neurodivergence emphasized the importance of predictability: “I typically like to plan almost everything.I'm a big planner, so when I kind of can tie up my expectations accordingly, I think it helps to alleviate some of the stress”.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The study had one student with unspecified neurodivergence and another with ASD who had ADHD.

“We had one student with an unspecified “neurodivergence”, and another with ASD who had ADHD.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The participant discussed how before they might have just had to join the teaching session late because they did not feel comfortable taking out their sandwich and eating around others in person.

“They discussed how before they might have just had to join the teaching session late, because I don't necessarily feel comfortable taking out my sandwich and eating around others in person.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Student C called for improving limited and dim visuals, potential sound issues or connection drops as otherwise they worried it would worsen feelings of anxiety, irritation and discomfort.

“Finally, Student C called for improving “limited and dim visuals, potential sound issues or connection drops” as otherwise they worried it would worsen feelings of “anxiety, irritation and discomfort”.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Student C commented that if someone already has a tendency toward anxiety or depression, using the telepresence robot might make them feel more irritable or anxious because the robot's field of view is generally quite dark and limited.

“In the interview, they commented, if someone already has a tendency toward anxiety or depression, using the telepresence robot might make them feel more irritable or anxious.This is because the robot's field of view is generally quite dark and limited.”

May combine two claims.

People literally put their ear up to the robot when they struggled to hear the participant, invading their personal space.

“In the interview, we clarified that people were literally putting their ear up to the robot when they struggled to hear them, and as such invading their personal space.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Student C was using a Beam Pro robot, which includes a full-screen feature; however, the user chose not to utilize it.

“It is important to note that Student C was using a Beam Pro robot, which includes a full-screen feature; however, the user chose not to utilize it.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Student A clarified that their issues were with driving the robot themselves, rather than having robots in the classroom.

“Student A clarified during the interview that their issues were with driving the robot themselves, rather than having robots in the classroom, “I would say having them in the classroom was positive, even if my personal experience with them was not.”.”

May combine two claims.

One of the three participants with mental health conditions was a distance learning student and regularly used the robot; the other two were in-person students, one of whom drove the robot once when feeling unwell, and one who did not drive but was in class with students driving robots.

“One of them was a distance learning student and regularly used the robot, while the other two were inperson students one of whom drove the robot once when they were feeling unwell, and one who did not drive but was in class with students driving robots..”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Student A discussed the need for teaching empathy to students collocated with robots.

“First, they discuss the need for teaching empathy to students collocated with robots, “I would say just having training that emphasizes empathy, kind of teaching the students how to understand the robots and the ways the multifaceted ways that they navigate, the fact that it's difficult.””

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

The participant with type 1 diabetes was the most enthusiastic telepresence user, attending class via telepresence robots for 5/10 weeks.

“The participant was the most enthusiastic telepresence user, attending class via telepresence robots for 5/10 weeks (they were a teacher and missed some classes due to parent-teacher conferences).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The participant participated from overseas, where it was four hours later, such that the two-hour class time overlapped typical dinner hours, making managing their blood sugar more challenging.

“They participated from overseas, where it was four hours later, such that the two-hour class time overlapped typical dinner hours.As this was a time they typically ate, it made managing their blood sugar more challenging.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Student B mentioned it was difficult to tell who was using which robot from behind, especially on the Double robots, and that this made them feel weird.

“They also mentioned it was difficult to tell who was using which robot from behind, especially on the Double robots of which we had two, and that this made them feel “weird”.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Despite some discomfort, both Student B and Student C did not experience the same level of discomfort reported by Student A.

“Fortunately, despite some discomfort, both Student B and Student C did not experience the same level of discomfort reported by Student A.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Student A framed the issue as a loss of control.

“They framed the issue as a loss of control, I kind of a big [...] contention between me and my anxiety is this kind of need for control.And I think in the moments that I was operating the telepresence, I didn't have the control that I wanted.And in that case, I think it made me more anxious than usual (Student A).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Student A framed their issues with the robots as stemming from anxiety and not PTSD.

“Student A during the interview framed their issues with the robots as stemming from anxiety and not PTSD.”

May combine two claims.

Both neurodivergent students demonstrated hypersensitivity to sound and audio, and spatial sensitivity when using telepresence robots.

“Both of them demonstrated hyper-sensitivity to sound and audio, and spatial sensitivity when using telepresence robots.”

May combine two claims.

Audio distortions and picking up background noise more than conversation are key factors affecting the experiences of neurodivergent users.

“Our data shows that audio distortions, as well as, picking up background noise more than conversation are key factors affecting the experiences of neurodivergent users.”

May combine two claims.

Using text as a back-channel support, the RA confirmed that they should move next to the participant using the robot; the physical proximity ameliorated the situation.

“In this instance, using text as a back-channel support, the RA confirmed that they should move next to the participant using the robot.In doing so, the physical proximity ameliorated the situation.”

May combine two claims.

Student A expressed concern about their classmates' and professor's perception of them when using the robot, and felt that when using the robots, they had violated their own expectations of how to follow social norms.

“Beyond this, Student A expressed concern about their classmates' and professor's perception of them when using the robot, and felt that when using the robots, they had violated their own expectations of how to follow social norms.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Student A felt that training should have included the ability to participate in a regular class for 10 or 15 minutes as practice before it was needed.

“Second, Student A felt that “When I was driving my training just kind of went out the window,” but highlighted that training should have included the ability to participate in a “regular class for like, 10 or 15 minutes as a practice before you really needed it also would have also probably would have appreciated that just to kind of like test drive it without having any kind of expectations.”.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Student B did not offer any mental health-specific suggestions for how their interactions with robots could be improved, but their data has clear implications.

“Student B did not offer any mental health-specific suggestions for how their interactions with robots could be improved, but their data does have clear implications.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The participant preferred having a robot in the classroom at this time as opposed to just turning off the camera on Zoom.

“They clarified they preferred having a robot in the classroom at this time as opposed to just turning off the camera on Zoom saying, “I just felt comfortable”.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Student C shared the experience of difficulty telling who was using which robot from behind.

“This is also a shared experience with Student C.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Student A described themselves as frustrated and overwhelmed and did not enjoy their experience, but left open future use.

“They also struggled using the robot, describing themselves as “frustrated and overwhelmed” so much and they said, “I didn't enjoy my experience and I can be honest about that fact, but I didn't enjoy it to [...] the extent that I would never use them again” (Student A).Yet, they still left the door open to their future use, saying, “I don't see myself being closed off to the robots forever”, for”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Student B did not like people behind them and was mindful of whether the door was blocked as having a clear way to exit a room.

“Student B did not like people behind them and was mindful of whether the door was blocked as having a clear way to exit a room.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The participant spoke about how the robot helped them manage their disability, specifically their blood sugar level.

“The participant spoke about how the robot helped them manage their disability, specifically their blood sugar level, “I found it being extremely useful.Being on a telepresence robot, you know, as a type one diabetic because it's certain points...I possibly was going low and I was then able to...eat my food.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Student A had clear ideas on how to mitigate their experiences through training.

“Student A had clear ideas on how to mitigate their experiences through training.”

May combine two claims.

Although some students had multiple disabilities, only five students self-identified as having disabilities.

“Although some students had multiple disabilities, only five students self-identified as having disabilities.”

May combine two claims.

The students with autism and diabetes were out about their disabilities, and thus did not mask.

“The students with autism and diabetes were out about their disabilities, and thus did not mask.”

May combine two claims.

All remote participants operated the telepresence robots from locations outside the classroom, spanning three overseas countries and other regions within our study country; and none of our observers operated the robots from within the classroom.

“All remote participants operated the telepresence robots from locations outside the classroom, spanning three overseas countries and other regions within our study country; and none of our observers operated the robots from within the classroom.”

May combine two claims.

PTSD, anxiety, and overstimulation due to ASD could be intensified due to telepresence operation.

“Our data suggest PTSD, anxiety, and overstimulation due to ASD could be intensified due to telepresence operation.”

May combine two claims.

Physically disabled, D/(d)eaf and/or Hard of Hearing, or Blind users were not enrolled in this class.

“These groups were not enrolled in this class and are generally underrepresented at our university [77].”

May combine two claims.

The data lack physically disabled, D/(d)eaf and/or Hard of Hearing, or Blind users.

“One significant omission from our data is the lack of physically disabled, D/(d)eaf and/or Hard of Hearing, or Blind users.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Much less attention has been paid to how telepresence robots might serve students with nonvisible disabilities, particularly students who have mental health-related disabilities or who are neurodivergent.

“Moreover, much less attention has been paid to how telepresence robots might serve students with nonvisible disabilities, particularly students who have mental healthrelated disabilities or who are neurodivergent.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

All of this theory-around embodiment, courtesy, psychological distance, and the goal of being ordinary-is foundational to this work, but workplaces and offices are not schools.

“All of this theory-around embodiment, courtesy, psychological distance, and the goal of being ordinary is foundational to this work, but workplaces and offices are not schools [13].”

• cites [13]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

This flexibility enabled both remote users and local participants to exhibit genuine reactions and develop spontaneous strategies toward different brands of telepresence robots operating in the room.

“This flexibility enabled both remote users and local participants to exhibit genuine reactions and develop spontaneous strategies toward different brands of telepresence robots operating in the room.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

With thoughtful training, empathetic technical support, and inclusive pedagogical practices, many of these barriers can be mitigated.

“However, with thoughtful training, empathetic technical support, and inclusive pedagogical practices, many of these barriers can be mitigated.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Collectively, these conditions enabled a robust exploration and utilization of telepresence robots in the classroom setting, supporting the validity of our ethnographic approach to user research.

“Collectively, these conditions enabled a robust exploration and utilization of telepresence robots in the classroom setting, supporting the validity of our ethnographic approach to user research.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

We believe that this unique composition influenced participant recruitment and our ability to develop a deep rapport with our participants.

“We believe that this unique composition influenced participant recruitment and our ability to develop a deep rapport with our participants.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

This typical attendance pattern created a rich environment for capturing a wide range of user interactions and experiences.

“This typical attendance pattern created a rich environment for capturing a wide range of user interactions and experiences.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

This research shows that while the robots are not inherently disabled, their restricted sensory and mobility capabilities require users and classmates to adopt compensatory strategies similar to the lived experience of disabled people.

“This research shows that while the robots are not inherently disabled, their restricted sensory and mobility capabilities require users and classmates to adopt compensatory strategies similar to the lived experience of disabled people.”

• cites [28]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Telepresence robots have increasingly been used in education contexts as a means of enhancing participation, enabling remote access for students who cannot physically attend classes due to a range of factors such as medical conditions, disabilities or temporary illness.

“Telepresence robots have increasingly been used in education contexts as a means of enhancing participation, enabling remote access for students who cannot physically attend classes due to a range of factors such as medical conditions, disabilities or temporary illness [28].”

• cites [28]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Consequently, we believe that our group's positionality impacted the class makeup and research participation.

“Consequently, we believe that our group's positionality impacted the class makeup and research participation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

We hold the same view that data from all ten participants has an important bearing on identifying effective support strategies for students with disabilities.

“We hold the same view that data from all ten participants has an important bearing on identifying effective support strategies for students with disabilities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Participation in the study was entirely voluntary and did not impact their final grades.

“Participation in the study was entirely voluntary and did not impact their final grades.”

May combine two claims.

Much of the existing research focuses on students with physical disabilities, with limited attention given to those with cognitive differences, such as mental health challenges and neurodivergence.

“Nevertheless, much of the existing research focuses on students with physical disabilities, with limited attention given to those with cognitive differences, such as mental health challenges and neurodivergence.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

We conducted an ethnographic study in an anthropological fashion of the last author's 10-week-long master's course at University College London (Ethical Approval ID #REC1766).

“We conducted an ethnographic study in an anthropological fashion [9,24,63,78] of the last author's 10-week-long master's course (an elective research method class that used a seminar format) at the University College London (Ethical Approval ID #REC1766).”

• cites [9]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [24]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [63]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [78]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Much of the HCI research examines the role of assistive and educational technologies in supporting autistic children, primarily through the lens of the medical model, which views disability as something that needs to be fixed or managed through medical treatment or assistive technology.

“Much of the HCI research examines the role of assistive and educational technologies in supporting autistic children, primarily through the lens of the medical model [66], which views disability as something that needs to be fixed or managed through medical treatment or assistive technology [55].”

• cites [66]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [55]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Morgado-Ramírez and colleagues critique this tendency in HCI, arguing that most technologies for neurodivergent individuals are designed within a deficit-oriented paradigm rather than aligning with the social model of disability, which emphasizes societal and environmental adaptations to support neurodivergent individuals.

“Morgado-Ramírez and colleagues [7,55] critique this tendency in HCI, arguing that most technologies for neurodivergent individuals are designed within a deficitoriented paradigm rather than aligning with the social model of disability, which emphasizes societal and environmental adaptations to support neurodivergent individuals.”

• cites [7]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [55]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

We deliberately allowed unstructured use in the classroom as it was consistent with our ethnographic method and it allowed us to study organic strategies for social and learning engagement.

“We deliberately allowed unstructured use in the classroom as it was consistent with our ethnographic method and it allowed us to study organic strategies for social and learning engagement.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Our study population might not reflect the typical student demographics at our university.

“These might explain why our study population might not reflect the typical student demographics at our university.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Therefore, we argue that our positionality statement is methodologically appropriate, being necessary rather than performative, as it is critical to understanding both how we recruited a sample so atypical of our university demographics and how we generated sufficient rapport to encourage such open participation.

“Therefore, we argue that our positionality statement is methodologically appropriate, being necessary rather than performative, as it is critical to understanding both how we recruited a sample so atypical of our university demographics and how we generated sufficient rapport to encourage such open participation.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

We also acknowledge that our positionality likely impacted our ability to establish rapport.

“We also acknowledge that our positionality likely impacted our ability to establish rapport.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Existing research has primarily investigated students with physical disabilities in K-12 contexts, and little is known about telepresence robot use by students with non-visible disabilities such as neurodivergence and mental health conditions in higher education.

“While existing research has primarily investigated students with physical disabilities in K-12 contexts, little is known about their use by students with non-visible disabilities such as neurodivergence (e.g., autism, ADHD) and mental health conditions in higher education.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Though this decision supports confidentiality, it also means certain demographic nuances (e.g., exact age or overlapping disabilities) are not fully detailed, limiting the granularity of our analyses.

“Though this decision supports confidentiality, it also means certain demographic nuances (e.g., exact age or overlapping disabilities) are not fully detailed, limiting the granularity of our analyses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other team members who served as teaching assistants, guest lecturers, or technical support staff were encouraged to reflect on their roles and presence impacting participants' telepresence robots use and data collection.

“Similarly, other team members who served as teaching assistants, guest lecturers, or technical support staff were encouraged to reflect on their roles and presence impacting participants' telepresence robots use and data collection.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

This is the first ethnographic study to explore how telepresence robots are used by students with non-visible disabilities in higher education.

“1) this is the first ethnographic study to explore how telepresence robots are used by students with non-visible disabilities in higher education;”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Our participant observation prompted reflection on the power dynamics of a professor studying their own students, ensuring that participant observation and interview aligned closely with best practices.

“Our participant observation prompted reflection on the power dynamics of a professor studying their own students, ensuring that participant observation and interview aligned closely with best practices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Morgado-Ramírez's critique that research about neurodivergence in HCI relies on the medical model can be extended to research on technologies to support mental health.

“Morgado-Ramírez's critique that research about neurodivergence in HCI relies on the medical model [55], can be extended to research on technologies to support mental health.”

• cites [55]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

While these technologies offer accessible and scalable mental health interventions, their reliance on the medical model may limit their effectiveness in fostering long-term mental well-being.

“While these technologies offer accessible and scalable mental health interventions, their reliance on the medical model may limit their effectiveness in fostering long-term mental well-being.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although we do not have direct access to the disability status of all students enrolled in this class, our university's Student Statistics report indicates that 17.45% of students self-reported disabilities, including 5.95% with mental health-related conditions, 6.22% with neurodivergent conditions, and 3.48% with physical and long-term or multiple disabilities.

“Although we do not have direct access to the disability status of all students enrolled in this class, our university's Student Statistics report [77] indicates that 17.45% of students self-reported disabilities, including 5.95% with mental health-related conditions, 6.22% with neurodivergent conditions, and 3.48% with physical and long-term or multiple disabilities.”

• cites [77]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Participants were asked if they would like to see a draft of the paper to confirm that the paper represented them appropriately, and we conducted member checking with all participants who opted in.

“Participants were asked if they would like to see a draft of the paper to confirm that the paper represented them appropriately, and we conducted member checking with all participants who opted in.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

By fostering a reflective and transparent engagement, we were able to build stronger rapport with students with disabilities, supporting them to share more nuanced insights into the accessibility challenges they faced.

“By fostering a reflective and transparent engagement, we were able to build stronger rapport with students with disabilities, supporting them to share more nuanced insights into the accessibility challenges they faced.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Later in the course, we confirmed that the voluntary nature of participation had been clearly communicated during recruitment.

“Later in the course, we confirmed that the voluntary nature of participation had been clearly communicated during recruitment.”

May combine two claims.

Many technology-based interventions are shaped by neuronormative research aims and primarily focus on mitigating behaviors perceived as disruptive, rather than addressing the lived experiences or structural barriers faced by neurodivergent individuals.

“However, many technology-based interventions are shaped by neuronormative research aims and primarily focus on mitigating behaviors perceived as disruptive, rather than addressing the lived experiences or structural barriers faced by neurodivergent individuals [69].”

• cites [69]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Using full screen would necessitate an extra screen for notetaking, viewing online course readings, and participating in any learning management system.

“Using full screen, however, would necessitate an extra screen for notetaking, viewing online course readings, and participating in any learning management system, in our case, Zoom and Moodle.”

May combine two claims.

In many circumstances, individuals with mental health conditions can appropriately use telepresence robots, but care is required.

“Ultimately, our data suggests that in many circumstances, individuals with mental health conditions can appropriately use telepresence robots, but care is required.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Training should explicitly discuss robots in the context of anxiety and PTSD.

“Further, training should explicitly discuss robots in the context of anxiety and PTSD.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Issues with networking must be addressed to ensure higher quality connections, and robot users must be trained how to use the full screen feature.

“This suggests that issues with networking must be addressed to ensure higher quality connections, and robot users must be trained how to use the full screen feature.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Space must be made for discussion of reasonable accommodations, and robots may not be appropriate for all environments.

“Finally, space must be made for discussion of reasonable accommodations, and robots may not be appropriate for all environments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Extra screens might help users' sense of immersion.

“Extra screens might help users' sense of immersion.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Training must address how mental health conditions can impact use.

“Training must address how mental health conditions can impact use.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Decoupling the training experience from a higher-stakes activity, such as a graded class, and having users first practice attending via robot on a lower-stakes activity is important.

“This suggests the importance of decoupling the training experience from a higher-stakes activity, a graded class, and instead, users should first practice attending via robot on a lower-stakes activity such as an optional research lecture.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Humanizing support is important to help students manage anxiety and feel included when suffering technological difficulties when using telepresence robots.

“This underscores the importance of humanizing support to help students manage anxiety and feel included when suffering technological difficulties when using telepresence robots.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

The name of the person using the robot should be clearly labeled on the back.

“The name of the person using the robot should be clearly labeled on the back.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Providing training for students to familiarize the environments is crucial to reduce uncertainty, thereby supporting smoother transitions and greater confidence when using telepresence robots.

“Thus, providing training for students to familiarize the environments is crucial to reduce uncertainty, thereby supporting smoother transitions and greater confidence when using telepresence robots.”

May combine two claims.

Participants' difficulties engaging in conversation due to noise mirror challenges faced by individuals with autism, who often struggle with overstimulation in noisy environments and perceive certain sounds as amplified.

“Participants' difficulties engaging in conversation due to noise, mirror the challenges faced by individuals with autism, who often struggle with overstimulation in noisy environments [86] and where certain sounds are perceived as amplified [70].”

• cites [86]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [70]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Care plans should be put in place to respond to adverse incidents.

“Care plans should be put in place to respond to adverse incidents.”

May combine two claims.

Despite social benefits, telepresence robots pose challenges especially for participants with ASD due to sensory hypersensitivities.

“This suggests despite the social benefits, telepresence robots also pose challenges, especially for participants with ASD due to sensory hypersensitivities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Adding a second rear-facing screen display as a digital name badge on the back of the robotic head could provide more visual cues and information, remind local participants of the driver's information, and provide awareness for people viewing the robot from behind that the robot had an active user.

“Adding a second rear-facing screen display as a digital name badge on the back of the robotic head could provide more visual cues and information.It could remind local participants of the driver's information, and provide awareness for people viewing the robot from behind that the robot had an active user.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

How disabled people use telepresence to present their identity and respond to courtesy norms are a critical area of study to ensure telepresence robots are usable by people with a range of abilities.

“Prior work highlighted courtesy as as key tensions for the design of telepresence robots [27], and our user's data suggest that how disabled people use telepresence to present their identity and respond to courtesy norms are a critical area of study to ensure telepresence robots are usable by people with a range of abilities.”

• cites [27]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The analysis shows that people with mental health challenges can continue to use robots, and users' mental health can be supported with a mixture of training and tech support.

“Our analysis shows that people with mental health challenges can continue to use robots, and users' mental health can be supported with a mixture of training and tech support.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All robot users experience disability regardless of whether they have first-hand lived experience with disability.

“This is in keeping with Williams [83]'s argument that all robot users experience disability regardless of whether they have first-hand lived experience with disability.”

• cites Williams [83]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

More understanding is needed before telepresence robots can safely and effectively be deployed in classrooms about how they impact and/or benefit individuals, especially those with ASD.

“Ultimately, for all students, regardless of disability, given prior research [47,56] about how environmental noise can serve as a source of distraction, more understanding is needed before telepresence robots can safely and effectively be deployed in classrooms about how they impact and/or benefit individuals, especially those with ASD.”

• cites [47]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [56]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Both solutions allowed the participant to avoid potential harms, and are examples of hypervigilance practices experienced by people with PTSD.

“Both solutions allowed the participant to avoid potential harms, and are examples of hypervigilance practices experienced by people with PTSD [42].”

• cites [42]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Managing sound stimulation is crucial; active efforts such as reducing background noise in the classroom or designing a low-volume space with sound paneling for telepresence-mediated interaction can help minimize distractions and improve the on-task attention of neurodivergent users.

“Managing sound stimulation is crucial; active efforts such as reducing background noise in the classroom or designing a low-volume space with sound paneling for telepresence-mediated interaction can help minimize distractions and improve the on-task attention of neurodivergent users.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This could also help mitigate anxiety issues caused by uncertainty and the effort required to recall information.

“This could also help mitigate anxiety issues caused by uncertainty and the effort required to recall information.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Individuals with autism need advanced notice of changes in conditions so they can know what to expect and prepare for them.

“This view can be considered common in neurodivergence, with Bewley and George [12] considering individuals with autism need advanced notice of changes in conditions so they can know what to expect and prepare for them.”

• cites Bewley and George [12]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The authors could not minimize reactivity because they engaged in participant-observation, so they discussed their positionality reflexively and how it impacted data collection and interpretation.

“As we engaged in participant-observation, we could not minimize reactivity [18], so instead, we engaged in keeping with best anthropological practice by discussing our positionality reflexively [23,63,78] and how it impacted both the data we collected and its interpretation.”

• cites [18]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [23]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [63]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [78]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The limitations of the study do not impact the key finding that students with disabilities have unique challenges with telepresence.

“Regardless, this study's key finding that students with disabilities have unique challenges with telepresence, which must be addressed in design, is not impacted by these limitations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

In educational settings, it is beneficial to provide training on multitasking, toggling between apps, and minimizing and maximizing screens.

“Second, in educational settings, it is beneficial to provide training on multitasking, toggling between apps (driving, note-taking, adjusting microphone and video settings, reading course materials, and classroom text chat), and minimizing and maximizing screens.”

May combine two claims.

The study is a single-site context focusing on one elective course at one institution, and this shapes findings in ways that likely reflect the pedagogical style, disability policies, and culture of this particular setting.

“It is fair to say this is a single-site context which focuses on one elective course at one institution, and that this shapes our findings in ways that likely reflect the pedagogical style, disability policies, and culture of this particular setting.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The authors deliberately chose ethnographic field-notes over visual recordings for research purposes to protect participant privacy and minimize classroom distractions.

“We deliberately chose ethnographic field-notes over visual recordings (photos and videos) for research purposes to protect participant privacy and minimize classroom distractions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Instructing local students to consult with and establish clear spatial boundaries for telepresence users helps neurodivergent users mitigate the stimulation of embodied experiences mediated by telepresence, allowing them to feel more comfortable during interactions and communication, as if they were in colocated contexts.

“Second, instructing local students to consult with and establish clear spatial boundaries for telepresence users is essential (to create mutually agreed interpersonal space).This helps neurodivergent users mitigate the stimulation of embodied experiences mediated by telepresence, allowing them to feel more comfortable during interactions and communication, as if they were in colocated contexts.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This training would allow them to more closely simulate the experiences of in-person participation.

“This training would allow them to more closely simulate the experiences of in-person participation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The research team and participants made a joint decision to keep disability characteristics confidential because some might seek a PhD in our field and prefer to keep their disability characteristics confidential.

“Thus, we made a joint decision between the research team and our participants, as some might seek a PhD in our field, and prefer to keep their disability characteristics confidential.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Some participants might seek a PhD in our field and prefer to keep their disability characteristics confidential.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This will benefit users without disabilities as well.

“This will benefit users without disabilities as well.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Each week, at least four team members sat in the classroom with robots and took notes, ensuring comprehensive observational coverage and minimizing gaps in the data.

“Each week, at least four team members sat in the classroom with robots and took notes, ensuring comprehensive observational coverage and minimizing gaps in the data.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Training materials should include strategies and guidance focused on managing hypersensitivities and attention spans in telepresence-mediated environments, particularly on engaging with the various functionalities and affordances of telepresence robots.

“First, training materials should include strategies and guidance focused on managing hypersensitivities and attention spans in telepresencemediated environments, particularly on engaging with the various functionalities and affordances of telepresence robots.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The class capture system automatically recorded sessions for student use, but adhering to ethical guidelines, these recordings were not utilized in this research.

“Although the class capture system automatically recorded sessions for student use, adhering to ethical guidelines, these recordings were not utilized in this research.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The consistent presence of a designated field-note taker ensured detailed documentation of class activities and telepresence use.

“The consistent presence of a designated field-note taker ensured detailed documentation of class activities and telepresence use.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Providing demographics specifics such as gender and race, when combined with disability, could potentially compromise participants' anonymity especially at our own institution.

“Providing demographics specifics such as gender and race, and when combined with disability, could potentially compromise participants' anonymity especially at our own institution.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

By openly acknowledging their positionality and practicing reflexivity, the authors interpreted participants' experiences and perceptions with context-specific insights.

“By openly acknowledging our positionality and practicing reflexivity, we interpreted participants' experiences and perceptions of interacting with and through telepresence robots with context-specific insights.”

May combine two claims.

Physically disabled, D/(d)eaf and/or Hard of Hearing, or Blind users are generally underrepresented at our university.

“These groups were not enrolled in this class and are generally underrepresented at our university [77].”

• cites [77]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The authors employed Reflexive Thematic Analysis with a focus on instances related to disability and telepresence.

“We employed Reflexive Thematic Analysis (RTA) [15][16][17] with a focus on instances related to disability and telepresence.”

• cites [15]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [16]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [17]Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The authors' dual roles as researchers and teaching staff uniquely positioned them to uncover experiences and perceptions that might otherwise have been overlooked or perceived differently during teaching activities.

“Additionally, our dual roles as researchers and teaching staff uniquely positioned us to uncover experiences and perceptions that might otherwise have been overlooked or perceived differently during our teaching activities.”