The Radical-Pair Mechanism of Magnetoreception
Open accessAbstract
Although it has been known for almost half a century that migratory birds can detect the direction of the Earth's magnetic field, the primary sensory mechanism behind this remarkable feat is still unclear. The leading hypothesis centers on radical pairs—magnetically sensitive chemical intermediates formed by photoexcitation of cryptochrome proteins in the retina. Our primary aim here is to explain the chemical and physical aspects of the radical-pair mechanism to biologists and the biological and chemical aspects to physicists. In doing so, we review the current state of knowledge on magnetoreception mechanisms. We dare to hope that this tutorial will stimulate new interdisciplinary experimental and theoretical work that will shed much-needed additional light on this fascinating problem in sensory biology.
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Magnetic fields alter coherent interconversion between singlet and triplet configurations, and reaction yields are determined by spin coherence rather than reaction energetics.
“Magnetic fields alter the coherent interconversion between singlet and triplet configurations, and because these spin states lead to different reaction outcomes, reaction yields are determined by spin coherence rather than reaction energetics [33,34,35].”
From The Heart’s Electromagnetic Field in Emotions, Empathy and Human Connection: Biosensor-Derived Insights into Heart–Brain Axis Mechanisms and a Basis for Novel BioMagnetoTherapies (2026) · cites this paper as [35]
The sections “Magnetic-Field Effects on Radical Pairs” and “Magnetic-Field Effects on the Products of Radical-Pair Reactions” say that external fields alter spin dynamics and that singlet–triplet interconversion affects product yields. The latter section also says yields depend on competing reaction rate constants, and notes that electron-transfer rates can depend on free energies. It therefore does not support the claim that yields are determined by spin coherence rather than reaction energetics. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredRPM provides an experimental and theoretical basis that renders the hypothesis regarding biologic systems' sensitivity to weak magnetic fields mechanistically plausible.
“While RPM does not directly address the cardiac field or emotional processes, it provides an experimental and theoretical basis that renders the hypothesis regarding biologic systems’ sensitivity to such weak magnetic fields mechanistically plausible.”
From The Heart’s Electromagnetic Field in Emotions, Empathy and Human Connection: Biosensor-Derived Insights into Heart–Brain Axis Mechanisms and a Basis for Novel BioMagnetoTherapies (2026) · cites this paper as [35]
The “Effects of Time-Dependent Magnetic Fields” section describes experimental effects of weak fields on migratory birds and a radical-pair mechanism consistent with laboratory results. But the “Effects of Broadband Electromagnetic Noise” section says the effects of much weaker fields are difficult to explain and may not involve direct magnetic interference with radical pairs. The paper therefore supports mechanistic plausibility under specific conditions, not a general mechanism for biological sensitivity to fields as weak as those implied here. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredStochastic resonance and the radical pair mechanism offer plausible theoretical frameworks through which weak magnetic fields could exert measurable effects under specific conditions.
“Although its nanotesla-scale strength (0.1–1 nT) poses a significant limitation for conventional biological interpretation, stochastic resonance and the radical pair mechanism offer plausible theoretical frameworks through which weak magnetic fields could exert measurable effects under specific conditions [35,36,37,38,39].”
From The Heart’s Electromagnetic Field in Emotions, Empathy and Human Connection: Biosensor-Derived Insights into Heart–Brain Axis Mechanisms and a Basis for Novel BioMagnetoTherapies (2026) · cites this paper as [35]
The “Effects of Time-Dependent Magnetic Fields” section explains how a weak field at a resonant frequency can change radical-pair reaction yields, supporting that framework under specific conditions. The paper does not establish stochastic resonance as a framework. Its “Effects of Broadband Electromagnetic Noise” section also says nanotesla-scale effects are difficult to explain through radical-pair spin dynamics, so it does not clearly support the sentence at its stated 0.1–1 nT strength. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe Radical Pair Mechanism proposes that magnetic fields can influence chemical reactions by modulating the quantum spin dynamics of transient radical pairs.
“The Radical Pair Mechanism (RPM) proposes that magnetic fields can influence chemical reactions by modulating the quantum spin dynamics of transient radical pairs.”
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Long-distance navigation and magnetoreception in migratory animals
Mouritsen, H. (2018) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0176-1 · Cited by 536 · see citing works
Self-citationMagnetic sensitivity of cryptochrome 4 from a migratory songbird
Xu, J., Jarocha, L. E., Zollitsch, T. M., Konowalczyk, M., Henbest, K. B., Richert, S., Golesworthy, M. J., Schmidt, J., Déjean, V., Sowood, D. J. C., et al. (2021) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-021-03618-9 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Self-citationRecent Advances in Magnetic Field-Enhanced Electrocatalysis
Zhang, Y., Liang, C., Wu, J., Liu, H., Zhang, B., Jiang, Z., Li, S., & Xu, P. (2020) · ACS Applied Energy Materials · doi:10.1021/acsaem.0c02104 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Electrochemistry in Magnetic Fields
Luo, S., Elouarzaki, K., & Xu, Z. J. (2022) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.202203564 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Günther, A., Einwich, A., Sjulstok, E., Feederle, R., Bolte, P., Koch, K.-W., Solov’yov, I. A., & Mouritsen, H. (2018) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.12.003 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“Its location in the outer segments of the double cones makes Cry4 an even likelier magnetoreception candidate, because the hundreds of parallel cell membranes in photoreceptor outer segments would facilitate an at least partial alignment of the cryptochromes relative to one another [7, 18, 22, 23, 26], and a magnetic…”
InfluentialSelf-citationMagnetic field effects in biology from the perspective of the radical pair mechanism
Zadeh-Haghighi, H., & Simon, C. (2022) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2022.0325 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Quantum Biology: An Update and Perspective
Kim, Y., Bertagna, F., D’Souza, E. M., Heyes, D. J., Johannissen, L. O., Nery, E. T., Pantelias, A., Jiménez, A. S.-P., Slocombe, L., Spencer, M. G., et al. (2021) · Quantum Reports · doi:10.3390/quantum3010006 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
“Ferricyanide oxidises the FAD so that the radical photochemistry proceeds in a similar fashion to the photoreduction of cryptochrome.”
BackgroundInfluentialChemical and structural analysis of a photoactive vertebrate cryptochrome from pigeon
Zoltowski, B. D., Chelliah, Y., Wickramaratne, A. C., Jarocha, L. E., Karki, N., Xu, W., Mouritsen, H., Hore, P. J., Hibbs, R. E., Green, C. B., et al. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1907875116 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“In such a system, the Earth’s magnetic field can alter the relative populations of singlet and triplet electronic states, enabling a field-dependent bias to affect a signaling state (5, 6).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDreyer, D., Frost, B. J., Mouritsen, H., Günther, A., Green, K., Whitehouse, M., Johnsen, S., Heinze, S., & Warrant, E. J. (2018) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.030 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citationTransduction of the Geomagnetic Field as Evidenced from alpha-Band Activity in the Human Brain
Wang, C. X., Hilburn, I. A., Wu, D.-A. J., Mizuhara, Y., Cousté, C. P., Abrahams, J. N. H., Bernstein, S. E., Matani, A., Shinsuke Shimojo, A., & Kirschvink, J. L. (2019) · eNeuro · doi:10.1523/eneuro.0483-18.2019 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Magnetoreception—A sense without a receptor
Nordmann, G. C., Hochstoeger, T., & Keays, D. A. (2017) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2003234 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“According to the favored model, a long-lived radical pair is formed when light induces the transfer of electrons to this FAD moiety along a triad of tryptophan residues in the Cry molecule (Fig 2B) [31,36].”
BackgroundBiological effects of the hypomagnetic field: An analytical review of experiments and theories
Binhi, V. N., & Prato, F. S. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0179340 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Pan, H., Jiang, X., Wang, X., Wang, Q., Wang, M., & Shen, Y. F. (2019) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b03146 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Molecular Ratchets and Kinetic Asymmetry: Giving Chemistry Direction
Borsley, S., Leigh, D. A., & Roberts, B. M. W. (2024) · Angewandte Chemie International Edition · doi:10.1002/anie.202400495 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Phylogenetic and Functional Classification of the Photolyase/Cryptochrome Family
Öztürk, N. (2016) · Photochemistry and Photobiology · doi:10.1111/php.12676 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“Although Type-2 CRYs of some birds have been suggested to function in magnetoreception (42), experimental evidence for a photosensory function is needed to support this hypothesis.”
BackgroundSherrard, R. M., Morellini, N. M., Jourdan, N., El-Esawi, M. A., Arthaut, L.-D., Nießner, C., Rouyer, F., Klarsfeld, A., Doulazmi, M., Witczak, J., et al. (2018) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2006229 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“that, although there has been overwhelming evidence for a radical pair-based magnetic sensing mechanism involving vertebrate cryptochromes [13], the possibility of unrelated cry-dependent magnetosensing mechanisms cannot be excluded.”
BackgroundPooam, M., Arthaut, L.-D., Burdick, D., Link, J. J., Martino, C. F., & Ahmad, M. (2018) · Planta · doi:10.1007/s00425-018-3002-y · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Cryptochrome 1 mediates light-dependent inclination magnetosensing in monarch butterflies
Wan, G., Hayden, A. N., Iiams, S. E., & Merlin, C. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21002-z · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Fu, X., Jiskra, M., Yang, X., Marusczak, N., Enrico, M., Chmeleff, J., Heimbürger‐Boavida, L., Gheusi, F., & Sonke, J. E. (2021) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c02568 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Diamond surface engineering for molecular sensing with nitrogen—vacancy centers
Janitz, E., Herb, K., Vӧlker, L. A., Huxter, W. S., Degen, C. L., & Abendroth, J. M. (2022) · Journal of Materials Chemistry C · doi:10.1039/d2tc01258h · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Hochstoeger, T., Said, T. A., Maestre, D., Walter, F., Vilceanu, A., Pedron, M., Cushion, T. D., Snider, W., Nimpf, S., Nordmann, G. C., et al. (2020) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abb9110 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Millitesla magnetic field effects on the photocycle of an animal cryptochrome
Sheppard, D. M. W., Li, J., Henbest, K. B., Neil, S. R. T., Maeda, K., Storey, J. G., Schleicher, E., Biskup, T., Rodriguez, R., Weber, S., et al. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep42228 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Self-citationSwimming with magnets: From biological organisms to synthetic devices
Klumpp, S., Lefèvre, C. T., Bennet, M. A., & Faivre, D. (2018) · Physics Reports · doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2018.10.007 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Vertebrate Cryptochromes are Vestigial Flavoproteins
Kutta, R. J., Archipowa, N., Johannissen, L. O., Jones, A. R., & Scrutton, N. S. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep44906 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
“The current chemical model of CRY as magnetoreceptor requires photoexcitation of FAD for generation of the magnetically sensitive radical pair 7 .”
Electron spin relaxation can enhance the performance of a cryptochrome-based magnetic compass sensor
Kattnig, D. R., Sowa, J. K., Solov’yov, I. A., & Hore, P. J. (2016) · New Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1367-2630/18/6/063007 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Self-citationQuantum Computing for Molecular Biology**
Baiardi, A., Christandl, M., & Reiher, M. (2023) · ChemBioChem · doi:10.1002/cbic.202300120 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Single-Molecule Magnetoluminescence from a Spatially Confined Persistent Diradical Emitter
Matsuoka, R., Kimura, S., Miura, T., Ikoma, T., & Kusamoto, T. (2023) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.3c01076 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Experimental indications of non-classical brain functions
Kerskens, C. M., & López Pérez, D. (2022) · Journal of Physics Communications · doi:10.1088/2399-6528/ac94be · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Motta, L. C., Kritee, K., Blum, J. D., Tsui, M. T., & Reinfelder, J. R. (2020) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry A · doi:10.1021/acs.jpca.9b06308 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Coupling of mechanical deformation and electromagnetic fields in biological cells
Torbati, M., Mozaffari, K., Liu, L., & Sharma, P. (2022) · Reviews of Modern Physics · doi:10.1103/revmodphys.94.025003 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Long-term exposure to a hypomagnetic field attenuates adult hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition
Zhang, B., Wang, L., Zhan, A., Wang, M., Tian, L., Guo, W., & Pan, Y. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21468-x · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Exposure to Static and Extremely-Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields and Cellular Free Radicals
Lai, H. C. (2019) · Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1080/15368378.2019.1656645 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Spin-selected electron transfer in liquid–solid contact electrification
Lin, S., Zhu, L., Tang, Z. A., & Wang, Z. L. (2022) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-022-32984-9 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Winkler, R., Ciria, M., Ahmad, M., Plank, H., & Marcuello, C. (2023) · Nanomaterials · doi:10.3390/nano13182585 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“To explain the magnetic field response characteristics of cryptochromes, quantum physical principles have been invoked for the Radical Pair mechanism of biological mag-netosensing [200].”
BackgroundCircadian rhythms in zebrafish ( Danio rerio ) behaviour and the sources of their variability
Крылов, В. В., Izvekov, E. I., Pavlova, V. V., Pankova, N. A., & Osipova, E. A. (2020) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.12678 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Cryptochromes, which are key elements of transcription–translation negative feedback loops are thought to be a possible biological magnetodetector (Solov’yov, Chandler & Schulten, 2007; Hore & Mouritsen, 2016).”
BackgroundCellular autofluorescence is magnetic field sensitive
Ikeya, N., & Woodward, J. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2018043118 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Hiscock, H. G., Mouritsen, H., Manolopoulos, D. E., & Hore, P. J. (2017) · Biophysical Journal · doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2017.07.031 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Additionally, doubt has been cast on the physical interpretation of the experiments (4,19).”
BackgroundSelf-citationRadical-Pair-Based Magnetoreception Amplified by Radical Scavenging: Resilience to Spin Relaxation
Kattnig, D. R. (2017) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry B · doi:10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b07672 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Magnetic Strategies for Nervous System Control
Christiansen, M. G., Senko, A. W., & Anikeeva, P. (2019) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-070918-050241 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Physiol 191: 675–693 [PubMed: 15886990] Winklhofer M, Mouritsen H. 2016 A magnetic protein compass? bioRxiv: 094607 Wu W, Wu Z, Yu T, Jiang C, Kim W-S.”
BackgroundInfluentialInteractions between electromagnetic radiation and biological systems
Liu, L., Huang, B., Lu, Y., Zhao, Y., Tang, X., & Shi, Y. (2024) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2024.109201 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Cryptochrome magnetoreception: four tryptophans could be better than three
Wong, S. Y., Wei, Y., Mouritsen, H., Solov’yov, I. A., & Hore, P. J. (2021) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2021.0601 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“The axial nature [1,9] and the light-dependence [10] of the birds’ responses to the geomagnetic field, together with the involvement of the birds’ visual system in processing magnetic compass information [11,12], are consistent with the formation of transient, magnetically sensitive radical pairs in photoreceptor cell…”
BackgroundSelf-citationPinzon-Rodriguez, A., Bensch, S., & Muheim, R. (2018) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2018.0058 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Yap, J. L. Y., Tai, Y. K., Fröhlich, J., Fong, C. H. H., Yin, J. N., Foo, Z. L., Ramanan, S., Beyer, C., Toh, S. J., Casarosa, M., et al. (2019) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.201900057r · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“vin radical-pair production (60), wherein electron”
BackgroundMolecular qubits based on photogenerated spin-correlated radical pairs for quantum sensing
Mani, T. (2022) · Chemical Physics Reviews · doi:10.1063/5.0084072 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Electronic spin separation induced by nuclear motion near conical intersections
Wu, Y., & Subotnik, J. E. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-020-20831-8 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Natal imprinting to the Earth’s magnetic field in a pelagic seabird
Wynn, J., Padget, O., Mouritsen, H., Perrins, C. M., & Guilford, T. (2020) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2020.05.039 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationLacombat, F., Espagne, A., Dozova, N., Plaza, P., Müller, P., Brettel, K., Franz-Badur, S., & Essen, L. (2019) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.9b03680 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Viability of superoxide-containing radical pairs as magnetoreceptors
Player, T. C., & Hore, P. J. (2019) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.5129608 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Self-citationKattnig, D. R., & Hore, P. J. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09914-7 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
“(2) Large values of kC lead to significant magnetic field effects even when kb is small or zero.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationBera, K., Dutta, P., & Sadhukhan, S. (2021) · Plant Cell Reports · doi:10.1007/s00299-021-02798-y · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Adalder, A., Mitra, K., Barman, N., Thapa, R., Bhowmick, S., & Ghorai, U. K. (2024) · Advanced Energy Materials · doi:10.1002/aenm.202403295 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Barbic, M. (2019) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.45807 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Interaction of biological systems with magnetic fields has puzzled and fascinated the scientific community for a long time (Kirschvink and Gould, 1981; Kirschvink et al., 2001; Walker et al., 2002; Bazylinski and Frankel, 2004; Johnsen and Lohmann, 2005; Johnsen and Lohmann, 2008; Hore and Mouritsen, 2016).”
BackgroundTowards the Idea of Molecular Brains
Timsit, Y., & Sergeant-Perthuis, G. (2021) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms222111868 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Petrone, A., Williams‐Young, D. B., Sun, S., Stetina, T. F., & Li, X. (2018) · The European Physical Journal B · doi:10.1140/epjb/e2018-90170-1 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Wu, H., Scholten, A., Einwich, A., Mouritsen, H., & Koch, K. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-64429-y · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationWang, K., Yang, Q., Zhang, H., Zhang, M., Jiang, H., Chen, Z., & Li, J. (2023) · Journal of Materials Chemistry A · doi:10.1039/d2ta09276j · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Stable organic radical qubits and their applications in quantum information science
Zhou, A.-M., Sun, Z., & Sun, L. (2024) · The Innovation · doi:10.1016/j.xinn.2024.100662 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
New Possibilities for Magnetic Control of Chemical and Biochemical Reactions
Buchachenko, A., & Lawler, R. G. (2017) · Accounts of Chemical Research · doi:10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00608 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Radical pairs may play a role in xenon-induced general anesthesia
Smith, J., Haghighi, H. Z., Salahub, D. R., & Simon, C. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-85673-w · Cited by 65 · see citing works
How the Geomagnetic Field Influences Life on Earth – An Integrated Approach to Geomagnetobiology
Erdmann, W., Kmita, H., Kosicki, J. Z., & Kaczmarek, L. D. (2021) · Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres · doi:10.1007/s11084-021-09612-5 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Essential elements of radical pair magnetosensitivity in Drosophila
Bradlaugh, A. A., Fedele, G., Munro, A. L., Hansen, C. N., Hares, J. M., Patel, S., Kyriacou, C. P., Jones, A. R., Rosato, E., & Baines, R. (2023) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-023-05735-z · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Genetic effects of non-ionizing electromagnetic fields
Lai, H. C. (2021) · Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1080/15368378.2021.1881866 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“…take a look at these publications: Barnes and Greenebaum (2015); Binhi and Prato (2017); Davila et al. (2005); Dodson et al. (2013); Hore (2019); Hore and Mouritsen (2016); Kirschvink et al. (2001); Landler and Keays (2018); Sheppard et al. (2017); Sherrard et al. (2018); and Sisakht et al. (2020).”
BackgroundLevitt, B. B., Lai, H. C., & Manville, A. M. (2021) · Reviews on Environmental Health · doi:10.1515/reveh-2021-0050 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Spin relaxation of radicals in cryptochrome and its role in avian magnetoreception
Worster, S. B., Kattnig, D. R., & Hore, P. J. (2016) · The Journal of Chemical Physics · doi:10.1063/1.4958624 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationFormicki, K., Korzelecka-Orkisz, A., & Tański, A. (2019) · Journal of Fish Biology · doi:10.1111/jfb.13998 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Hammad, M., Albaqami, M., Pooam, M., Kernevez, E., Witczak, J., Ritz, T., Martino, C. F., & Ahmad, M. (2020) · Photochemical & Photobiological Sciences · doi:10.1039/c9pp00469f · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Moretti, J., & Rodger, J. (2022) · Current Research in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.crneur.2022.100033 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Theoretical Concepts in Magnetobiology after 40 Years of Research
Binhi, V. N., & Rubin, A. B. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11020274 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“, [23,24,45,46]) and orbital [22,47] magnetic moments.”
BackgroundLeberecht, B., Kobylkov, D., Karwinkel, T., Döge, S., Burnus, L., Wong, S. Y., Apte, S., Haase, K., Musielak, I., Chetverikova, R., et al. (2022) · Journal of Comparative Physiology A · doi:10.1007/s00359-021-01537-8 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Most evidence suggests that the sensory mechanism is based on a radical pair process (Schulten et al. 1978; Ritz et al. 2000; Hore and Mouritsen 2016; Xu et al. 2021), but the primary magnetic sensors have yet to be unequivocally identified.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationMagnetic Fields Modulate Blue-Light-Dependent Regulation of Neuronal Firing by Cryptochrome
Giachello, C. N., Scrutton, N. S., Jones, A. R., & Baines, R. (2016) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2140-16.2016 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“An MF effect because of the RPM is therefore predicted and this experimental approach mitigates many of the problems and confounding variables associated with weak MFs generated by electromagnets under laboratory conditions (for a full discussion, see Marley et al., 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialMagnetocarcinogenesis: is there a mechanism for carcinogenic effects of weak magnetic fields?
Juutilainen, J., Herrala, M., Luukkonen, J., Naarala, J., & Hore, P. J. (2018) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.0590 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“64 Although the detection mechanisms are still to be fully determined, magnetically sensitive reactions 65 of radical pairs in cryptochromes (CRY) seem to be involved, at least in birds [9].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationKerpal, C., Richert, S., Storey, J. G., Pillai, S., Liddell, P. A., Gust, D., Mackenzie, S. R., Hore, P. J., & Timmel, C. R. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-11655-2 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Self-citationAlbert, L., Deschamps, F., Jolivet, A., Olivier, F., Laurent Chauvaud, A., & Chauvaud, S. (2020) · Marine Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2020.104958 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Spin-chemistry concepts for spintronics scientists
Ivanov, K. L., Wagenpfahl, A., Deibel, C., & Matysik, J. (2017) · Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology · doi:10.3762/bjnano.8.143 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
A physical mechanism of magnetoreception: Extension and analysis
Binhi, V. N., & Prato, F. S. (2016) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.22011 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Such small nonselective effects could be considered as an intrinsic component of the radical-pair mechanism that is widely discussed in magnetobiology [e.g., Barnes and Greenebaum, 2015; Hore and Mouritsen, 2016].”
Babcock, N. S., & Kattnig, D. R. (2020) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.jpclett.0c00370 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Geomagnetic field impacts on cryptochrome and phytochrome signaling
Agliassa, C., Narayana, R., Christie, J. M., & Maffei, M. E. (2018) · Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jphotobiol.2018.05.027 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“4 radical pair mechanism forming the basis of Arabidopsis cryptochrome 1 and 2 (cry1 and cry2) blue 65 light-activation appears to be affected by the external MF [8-10].”
BackgroundRotations of macromolecules affect nonspecific biological responses to magnetic fields
Binhi, V. N., & Prato, F. S. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-31847-y · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Luo, J., & Hore, P. J. (2021) · New Journal of Physics · doi:10.1088/1367-2630/abed0b · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Self-citationMüller, P., Ignatz, E., Kiontke, S., Brettel, K., & Essen, L. (2017) · Chemical Science · doi:10.1039/c7sc03969g · Cited by 53 · see citing works
No evidence for magnetic field effects on the behaviour of Drosophila
Bassetto, M., Reichl, T., Kobylkov, D., Kattnig, D. R., Michael Winklhofer, A., Hore, P. J., & Mouritsen, H. (2023) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06397-7 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationMagnetic map navigation in a migratory songbird requires trigeminal input
Pakhomov, A. Y., Анашина, А., Heyers, D., Kobylkov, D., Mouritsen, H., & Chernetsov, N. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-30477-8 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationDan, H., Kong, Y., Yue, Q., Liu, J., Xu, X., Kong, W., Gao, Y., & Gao, B. (2020) · Chemical Engineering Journal · doi:10.1016/j.cej.2020.127634 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Biological effects related to geomagnetic activity and possible mechanisms
Крылов, В. В. (2017) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.22062 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“However, they suggest the protein coded by the CG8198 gene may be an element of the protein–protein interactions that might allow the transduction of magnetic information from cryptochromes to higher hierarchical levels [Hore and Mouritsen, 2016].”
BackgroundTracking the Electron Transfer Cascade in European Robin Cryptochrome 4 Mutants
Timmer, D., Frederiksen, A., Lünemann, D. C., Thomas, A. R., Xu, J., Bartölke, R., Schmidt, J., Kubař, T., Sio, A. D., Solov’yov, I. A., et al. (2023) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/jacs.3c00442 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationZebra finches have a light-dependent magnetic compass similar to migratory birds
Pinzon-Rodriguez, A., & Muheim, R. (2017) · Journal of Experimental Biology · doi:10.1242/jeb.148098 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“…compass information by a light-dependent radical-pair process taking place in cryptochromes in the avian retina (Schulten et al., 1978; Ritz et al., 2000; reviewed by Rodgers and Hore, 2009; Wiltschko et al., 2010; Solov’yov et al., 2010; Mouritsen and Hore, 2012; Hore and Mouritsen, 2016).”
BackgroundCondensed Matter Systems Exposed to Radiation: Multiscale Theory, Simulations, and Experiment
Solov’yov, A. V., Verkhovtsev, A. V., Mason, N. J., Amos, R. A., Bald, I., Baldacchino, G., Dromey, B., Falk, M., Fedor, J., Gerhards, L., et al. (2024) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00902 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
A light-dependent magnetoreception mechanism insensitive to light intensity and polarization
Worster, S. B., Mouritsen, H., & Hore, P. J. (2017) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2017.0405 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationBerntsson, O., Rodriguez, R., Henry, L., Panman, M. R., Hughes, A. J., Einholz, C., Weber, S., Ihalainen, J. A., Henning, R. W., Kosheleva, I., et al. (2019) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aaw1531 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Bolte, P., Einwich, A., Seth, P. K., Chetverikova, R., Heyers, D., Wojahn, I., Janssen‐Bienhold, U., Feederle, R., Hore, P. J., Dedek, K., et al. (2021) · Ethology Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1080/03949370.2020.1870571 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“This so-called radical pair theory suggests that photon absorption in specialised magnetoreceptor molecules leads to electron transfer reactions and the subsequent formation of a long-lived radical pair (Schulten et al. 1978; Ritz et al. 2000; Maeda et al. 2008; Hore & Mouritsen 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationDouble Cones and the Diverse Connectivity of Photoreceptors and Bipolar Cells in an Avian Retina
Günther, A., Dedek, K., Haverkamp, S., Irsen, S. H., Briggman, K. L., & Mouritsen, H. (2021) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2495-20.2021 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…species including the chicken express cryptochrome 4 (Günther et al., 2018), which could be the primary magnetic sensory molecule as it binds the crucial FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) cofactor (Hore and Mouritsen, 2016; Zoltowski et al., 2019), and is magnetically sensitive (Xu et al., 2021).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationHow quantum is radical pair magnetoreception?
Fay, T. P., Lindoy, L. P., Manolopoulos, D. E., & Hore, P. J. (2020) · Faraday Discussions · doi:10.1039/c9fd00049f · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Self-citationSharpe, M. A., Baskin, D. S., Pichumani, K., Ijare, O. B., & Helekar, S. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2021.768758 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“org 12 not powerful enough to exert thermodynamic control on biological processes but are instead determined by electron spin selection rules (14).”
BackgroundSaletnik, B. A., Saletnik, A., Słysz, E., Zaguła, G., Bajcar, M., Puchalska-Sarna, A., & Puchalski, C. (2022) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules27185823 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Hore and Mouritsen (2016) [83] explained the biological photoreceptor as a magnetoreceptor function based on the radical-pair hypothesis.”
BackgroundLeberecht, B., Wong, S. Y., Satish, B., Döge, S., Hindman, J., Venkatraman, L., Apte, S., Haase, K., Musielak, I., Dautaj, G., et al. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2301153120 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“While such weak, rapidly fluctuating magnetic fields should not affect a magnetite- based sensor (10, 25), their disruptive effect could be consistent with a radical pair mechanism (11, 26).”
BackgroundSelf-citationKobylkov, D., Wynn, J., Michael Winklhofer, A., Chetverikova, R., Xu, J., Hiscock, H. G., Hore, P. J., & Mouritsen, H. (2019) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2019.0716 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“According to this model, photoexcitation of receptor molecules in the birds’ retinas can trigger an electron transfer pathway that results in the formation of radical pairs [13].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationMagneto-plasticity in micro-cutting of single-crystal copper
Guo, Y., Lee, Y. J., Zhang, Y., & Wang, H. (2022) · Journal of Material Science and Technology · doi:10.1016/j.jmst.2022.03.003 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Cryptochromes: Photochemical and structural insight into magnetoreception
Karki, N., Vergish, S., & Zoltowski, B. D. (2021) · Protein Science · doi:10.1002/pro.4124 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“The M1 mechanism is supported by quantum mechanical calculations that confirmed M1 demonstrates characteristics consistent with the RP-hypothesis.(4,48) Further, in vitro ultrafast spectroscopy confirmed that millitesla magnetic fields alter the photochemical yield of FAD• .”
ResultMitra, K., Adalder, A., Mandal, S., & Ghorai, U. K. (2024) · Small Methods · doi:10.1002/smtd.202301132 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Myklatun, A., Lauri, A., Eder, S. H. K., Cappetta, M., Shcherbakov, D., Wurst, W., Michael Winklhofer, A., & Westmeyer, G. G. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03090-6 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
- Authors
- Hore, P. J., & Mouritsen, H.
- Affiliations
- University of Oxford (GB)
- Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Mouritsen, Henrik
- Venue
- Annual Review of Biophysics
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2016-07-05
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 299-344
- ISSN
- 1936-122X (ISSN-L)
- 1936-1238
- OpenAlex
- W2342982958
- Cited by
- 813
- References
- 222
- Citations by year
- 2026: 119 · 2025: 96 · 2024: 83 · 2023: 89 · 2022: 80 · 2021: 100 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 64 · 2018: 55 · 2017: 39 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 1
- FWCI
- 6.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Biophysics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- EMF Biological Research Trust
- European Commission (FP7/2007–2013/ERC, 2007–2013, FP7 2007-2013, FP7/2007)
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (GRK1885, FP7/2007–2013)
- Volkswagen Foundation
- U.S. Air Force (FA9550)
- Advanced Research Projects Agency
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/L011972/1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biophysics › Electromagnetic Fields and Biological Effects
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biophysics › Electron Spin Resonance Studies
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism Studies
- Keywords
- magnetoreception, radical pairs, cryptochrome, bird migration, magnetic field sensing, photoexcitation, radical pair mechanism, sensory biology
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Birds, Free Radicals, Retina, Space Perception, Animal Migration, Cryptochromes, Magnetic Fields
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