The DOI matches its Crossref record; 157 of the 159 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 133 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior
Open accessAbstract
Social Safety Theory hypothesizes that developing and maintaining friendly social bonds is a fundamental organizing principle of human behavior and that threats to social safety are a critical feature of psychological stressors that increase risk for disease. Central to this formulation is the fact that the human brain and immune system are principally designed to keep the body biologically safe, which they do by continually monitoring and responding to social, physical, and microbial threats in the environment. Because situations involving social conflict, isolation, devaluation, rejection, and exclusion historically increased risk for physical injury and infection, anticipatory neural–immune reactivity to social threat was likely highly conserved. This neurocognitive and immunologic ability for humans to symbolically represent and respond to potentially dangerous social situations is ultimately critical for survival. When sustained, however, this multilevel biological threat response can increase individuals’ risk for viral infections and several inflammation-related disease conditions that dominate present-day morbidity and mortality.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Social Safety Theory proposes that forming and maintaining friendly social bonds is a fundamental organizing principle of human behavior, and that threats to social safety are key psychological stressors that increase disease risk. It integrates immune, neural, and neuroimmune evidence to argue that social threat engages conserved inflammatory responses that, when sustained, contribute to viral infections and inflammation-related disease.
Key findings
- Social safety and social integration are linked to better health: a meta-analysis of 148 studies and 308,849 participants followed for an average of 7.5 years found being socially well integrated was associated with a 91% increase in odds of survival (OR = 1.91; 95% CI [1.63, 2.23]); another meta-analysis of 41 studies and 73,037 participants found lower inflammatory markers TNF-α, IL-6, CRP, and fibrinogen (Zr = −0.076; 95% CI [−0.11, −0.04]).
- Social threat predicts mortality and morbidity: adjusted mortality odds were 1.26 for low socioeconomic status (95% CI [1.21, 1.32]), 1.26 for perceived loneliness (95% CI [1.04, 1.53]), 1.29 for social isolation (95% CI [1.06, 1.56]), and 1.32 for living alone (95% CI [1.14, 1.53]), translating to roughly 2.1 years of reduced life expectancy by age 40. Targeted rejection stressors hasten depression onset, promote suicidal ideation, alter inflammatory signaling, and accelerate biological aging as indexed by telomere length.
- Proposed mechanisms involve four neural networks (amygdala, mentalizing, empathy, mirror neuron) and four neural–immune pathways (sympathetic nervous system, HPA axis, vagus nerve, meningeal lymphatic vessels) that enable “social signal transduction”; cytokines are described as critical mediators affecting physiology, cognition, and behavior.
- Several moderators are proposed: genetics (e.g., OPRM1 rs1799971, IL6 −174G>C), sleep, childhood microbial environment, diet/adiposity, birth cohort, air pollution, and self-harm. For example, parental absence predicted 47% higher CRP in young adulthood for those with low infancy animal-feces exposure versus 17% lower CRP for those with high exposure; PM2.5 <12 μg/m3 was associated with a 13.6% increase in all-cause mortality (HR = 1.136; 95% CI [1.131, 1.141]).
Methods
- Design: conceptual/theoretical review and theory-building paper; it proposes Social Safety Theory and reviews evidence for its three main tenets.
- Data or sample: no primary sample or new empirical data are reported; it synthesizes existing literature from anthropology, psychology, sociology, epidemiology, and public health, including cited meta-analyses, cohort studies, and experimental studies.
- Main analysis: narrative integration of prior stress theories, immune system function, social brain networks, neural–immune communication, and evidence for social safety and threat effects; no systematic review search or quality-appraisal methods are stated.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: stress research lacks consensus on definitions and on which social-environmental adversities are most deleterious; epidemiologic studies are not designed to discern what about social threat is most harmful; no studies have examined within-person associations between nonsuicidal self-injury, inflammation, and social safety/threat; acetaminophen is the only biologically informed strategy listed and is far from accepted; future longitudinal studies are needed.
- Evident from the text: as a narrative review, it does not systematically search or appraise evidence or directly test the theory as a whole; causal and mechanistic claims rely on cited studies, and several proposed moderators (e.g., birth cohort, air pollution, self-harm) are presented as needing future research.
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Claims the paper makes
104 Not checked yet · 32 Own interpretation · 10 No basis given
In the paper
“being exposed to sustained social threat characterized by verbal attacks, social exclusion, devaluation, and aggression heightens inflammatory reactivity to social stress (Giletta et al. 2018)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 3: Social Threat Is Harmful for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Giletta et al. 2018
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Sleep disturbance (e.g., difficulty falling or staying asleep, nonrestorative sleep, early-morning awakening) is a strong predictor of both inflammation-related disease risk and all-cause mortality (Irwin 2019).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Sleep
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Irwin 2019
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“it can promote anger, procrastination, aggression, and withdrawal as well as a variety of externalizing behaviors, such as fighting, cursing, cheating, rule breaking, and stealing (Leary 2001).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 3: Social Threat Is Harmful for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Leary 2001
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“socioeconomic status and subjective social status, which are strong predictors of all-cause mortality (see Adler & Rehkopf 2008, Muscatell et al. 2018).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 2: Social Safety Is Beneficial for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Adler & Rehkopf 2008
- Not checked yetcites Muscatell et al. 2018
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“29% for social isolation (OR = 1.29; 95% CI [1.06, 1.56])”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 3: Social Threat Is Harmful for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Holt-Lunstad et al. 2015
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“this SNS/βAR-driven IL6 gating effect on mortality was evident only for inflammation-related causes of death—namely, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, and cancer.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Genetics
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cole et al. 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“26% for low socioeconomic status (OR =1.26; 95% CI [1.21, 1.32])”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 3: Social Threat Is Harmful for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Stringhini et al. 2017
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“these so-called targeted rejection stressors hasten onset of depression (Slavich et al. 2009)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 3: Social Threat Is Harmful for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Slavich et al. 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“32% for living alone (OR = 1.32; 95% CI [1.14, 1.53])”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 3: Social Threat Is Harmful for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Holt-Lunstad et al. 2015
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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In the paper
“having a socially safe relationship characterized by a stable sense of emotional security was associated with a 34% lower hazard of death during the 7-year study period (Lutgendorf et al. 2012).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 2: Social Safety Is Beneficial for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lutgendorf et al. 2012
plaincorrelationaln = 168- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 48
- Probably not a substantial claim. 16
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“individuals with greater social safety exhibit better outcomes in the context of acute myocardial infarction (Mookadam & Arthur 2004), amputation (Hawkins et al. 2016), acquired brain injury (Jones et al. 2011), substance dependence treatment (Haslam et al. 2019), HIV/AIDS (van Luenen et al. 2018), stroke (Haslam et al. 2008), and heart disease and cancer (Valtorta et al. 2016).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 2: Social Safety Is Beneficial for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mookadam & Arthur 2004
- Not checked yetcites Hawkins et al. 2016
- Not checked yetcites Jones et al. 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas G allele carriers were twice as likely to meet criteria for major depressive disorder following a recent severe targeted rejection life event (e.g., because they exhibit less opioid receptor expression and signaling efficiency), A/A homozygotes were completely unaffected by such stress.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Genetics
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Slavich et al. 2014
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“with up to 48% of adults reporting at least some sleep complaints, it is especially prevalent among persons exposed to stressors that threaten social safety, such as interpersonal violence and aggression (Gallegos et al. 2019).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Sleep
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gallegos et al. 2019
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“social safety is associated with greater occupational and scholastic achievement, perseverance, and productivity (Holt-Lunstad 2018, Strayhorn 2018) as well as with more volunteering and fewer sick days (Babey et al. 2019).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 2: Social Safety Is Beneficial for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Holt-Lunstad 2018
- Not checked yetcites Strayhorn 2018
- Not checked yetcites Babey et al. 2019
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“greater daily experiences of social threat (e.g., arguments with parents, family members, teachers, or friends; punishment; being insulted or threatened) interacted with shorter sleep duration to predict reduced expression of 511 genes and increased expression of 1,894 genes including several that promote inflammatory activity, such as TNF, IL1RAP, IL2RB, and IL15RA.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Sleep
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chiang et al. 2019
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“These social-environmental effects translate into a rather striking reduced life expectancy of around 2.1 years by age 40, thus exceeding the mortality risk associated with high alcohol intake, obesity, and hypertension (Stringhini et al. 2017).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 3: Social Threat Is Harmful for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Stringhini et al. 2017
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Social safety is also related to practicing better health behaviors, which in turn predicts numerous behavioral and health-related outcomes including longevity (Umberson et al. 2010).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 2: Social Safety Is Beneficial for Human Health and Behavior
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Umberson et al. 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For individuals exposed to low levels of animal feces during infancy, those who experienced a core threat to social safety in the form of prolonged parental absence during childhood (e.g., resulting from divorce, separation, or death) exhibited 47% higher CRP levels in young adulthood relative to their no-stress counterparts.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Childhood Microbial Environment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McDade et al. 2013
plaincorrelationaln = 1,622- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“experiences of social threat can increase gut permeability, which enables bacteria to cross the epithelial barrier and activate a mucosal immune response that changes the microbiome, upregulates HPA axis and inflammatory activity, and heightens experiences of social threat”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Diet
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dinan & Cryan 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“high-fat diets cause compositional changes in the microbiome that heighten neuroendocrine reactivity and inflammatory activity, which in turn induce anxiety, hypervigilance, and experiences of social threat.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Diet
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dinan & Cryan 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“approximately 33% of women report having experienced lifetime partner or nonpartner physical violence, or nonpartner sexual violence (OECD 2011).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Birth Cohort
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites OECD 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“NSSI is more common in people who have experienced major threats to social safety, such as emotional, physical, or sexual abuse, thus making social threat a key risk factor for NSSI (Nock 2009, Stewart et al. 2019).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Self-Harm
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nock 2009
- Not checked yetcites Stewart et al. 2019
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Diet strongly affects the bacterial composition of the microbiota that can in turn shape experiences of social safety and threat by influencing the brain–gut–microbiome axis, which includes the CNS, neuroendocrine and neuroimmune systems, autonomic nervous system, enteric nervous system, and intestinal microbiota (Dinan & Cryan 2012).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Diet
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Dinan & Cryan 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“it was the participants who grew up in an urban environment who exhibited the greatest TSST-induced increases in IL-6.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Childhood Microbial Environment
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Böbel et al. 2018
plaincorrelationaln = 40- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Exposure to fine PM ≤2.5 μm in aerodynamic diameter (i.e., PM2.5) is especially harmful because these particles can be inhaled, enter the circulation, and reach the brain, where they influence serotonergic and dopaminergic activity and affect brain structure, function, and plasticity.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Air Pollution
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Olvera Alvarez et al. 2018
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Across 35 countries, total fertility rates have dropped from an average of 2.7 children/woman in 1970 to 1.7 children/woman in 2009, leading to a corresponding decline in average household size and fewer available familial bonds.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Birth Cohort
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites OECD 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“obesity shifts this immunologic stance toward a type 1 or T helper 1 state in which proinflammatory (i.e., M1-polarized) macrophages accumulate and secrete large amounts of different cytokines, including IL-1β and TNF-α, under conditions of psychological stress (Reilly & Saltiel 2017).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Diet
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Reilly & Saltiel 2017
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“NSSI has a lifetime prevalence of up to 23% in adolescents and 4% in adults”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Self-Harm
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Nock 2009
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“UNICEF (2014) estimated that across 62 countries, approximately 70% of children 2–14 years old have experienced psychological threats to social safety, such as verbal aggression, intimidation, humiliation, or ridicule.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Birth Cohort
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites UNICEF 2014
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“birth month has been found to independently predict longevity in several studies, with such effects being attributed to seasonal differences in the availability of healthy foods during pregnancy (which is generally better during spring and summer months) and to differences in infants’ likelihood of exposure to inflammation-promoting pathogens (which is generally worse in autumn and winter months)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Birth Cohort
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Doblhammer & Vaupel 2001
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“threats to social safety are a critical feature of psychological stressors that increase risk for disease”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > Abstract
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“DAMPs are now recognized as a key promoter of systemic chronic inflammation, meaning that they may be especially relevant for understanding how life stress exerts persistent effects on human health, behavior, and age-related disease risk (i.e., in the absence of infection) (see Furman et al. 2019)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM > Innate and Adaptive Immunity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Furman et al. 2019
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“APCs migrate from the infection site to local lymph nodes where they present antigen peptides to T helper cells, resulting in the release of several cytokines including IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) (Slavich 2020)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM > Innate and Adaptive Immunity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Slavich 2020
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This type of innate immune response can occur in the absence of a pathogenic infection, which is why some have called it sterile inflammation, and it plays a critical role in helping individuals recover from tissue damage sustained during physical injury or bodily trauma (Crişan et al. 2016)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM > Innate and Adaptive Immunity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Crişan et al. 2016
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“there is little agreement about the types of social-environmental adversity that are most deleterious and no consensus regarding the social-psychological characteristics that make particular stressors stressful (Cohen et al. 2019, Epel et al. 2018)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > INTRODUCTION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen et al. 2019
- Not checked yetcites Epel et al. 2018
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The primary goal of the immune system, in turn, is to keep the body biologically safe and protected from these foreign invaders and from physical injuries that could cause illness or death if left unaddressed (Slavich & Irwin 2014)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Slavich & Irwin 2014
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Social Safety Theory hypothesizes that developing and maintaining friendly social bonds is a fundamental organizing principle of human behavior”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“DAMPs can bind to and activate PRRs, especially TLR2 and TLR4, and in turn initiate a very rapid inflammatory response that is characterized by NF-κB-mediated increases in several inflammatory cytokines, especially IL-1β (Schaefer 2014)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM > Innate and Adaptive Immunity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schaefer 2014
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the body engages the evolutionarily younger, 450-million-year-old adaptive immune system (Travis 2009). Compared with the innate immune response, which is nonspecific and occurs quickly, adaptive immunity develops over several days and involves the proliferation of microbial-specific lymphocytes that neutralize or eliminate microbes based on an immunological memory”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM > Innate and Adaptive Immunity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Travis 2009
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“these theories are largely based on behavioral and clinical data, with researchers in turn assuming how different stressors might affect underlying biological processes”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON LIFE STRESS > Conceptual Conflict and Confusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“these formulations provide very different, largely nonoverlapping explanations for why certain stressors are most impactful”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES ON LIFE STRESS > Conceptual Conflict and Confusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“if the immunologic threat involves an intracellular pathogen (e.g., virus), then TLRs activate the transcription factors NF-κB, ATF2–c-Jun, interferon-regulatory factor 3, and interferon-regulatory factor 7, which induce antiviral immune response genes, particularly type I interferon genes”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM > Innate and Adaptive Immunity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kawai & Akira 2006
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The innate immune system dates back to the origin of multicellularity and provides humans with an extremely rapid, highly conserved immunologic defense response that gets activated under conditions of microbial infection and tissue damage (Travis 2009)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > THE HUMAN IMMUNE SYSTEM > Innate and Adaptive Immunity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Travis 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These vessels help drain macromolecules and excess fluid from the central nervous system (CNS). However, they also represent a physical path along which immune cells can travel from the CNS to the periphery”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > NEURAL–IMMUNE COMMUNICATION > Meningeal Lymphatic Vessels
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Multiple bidirectional pathways enable the brain to signal the peripheral immune system and vice versa during times of social threat. These pathways include the sympathetic nervous system (SNS), hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, vagus nerve, and meningeal lymphatic vessels”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > NEURAL–IMMUNE COMMUNICATION
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“adversity can trigger increased arborization of SNS fibers in the lymph node, which expands the neural–immune regulatory pipeline and may promote neuro-inflammatory sensitization to adversity that sustains perceptions of social threat for months or years after an initial triggering event has passed (see Slavich & Irwin 2014)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Adaptive Versus Maladaptive Responsivity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Slavich & Irwin 2014
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“cytokines can affect threat and pain sensitivity, exploratory and pleasure-seeking behavior, ingestive behavior, sleep, learning, attention, memory, impulsivity, temporal focus, emotion regulation, executive function, and cognitive control (Larson & Dunn 2001, Shields et al. 2017)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Cytokines as Critical Mediators
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Larson & Dunn 2001
- Not checked yetcites Shields et al. 2017
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“adversity can lead to epigenetic reprogramming of innate immune cells (Crişan et al. 2016) and alter the hematopoietic output of these cells from the bone marrow (Hanke et al. 2012), skewing them toward a more proinflammatory state”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Adaptive Versus Maladaptive Responsivity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Crişan et al. 2016
- Not checked yetcites Hanke et al. 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“cortisol can also lead to increased inflammatory activity by priming heightened inflammatory reactivity, stimulating immune cell trafficking, and promoting glucocorticoid insensitivity/resistance (Sorrells et al. 2009)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > NEURAL–IMMUNE COMMUNICATION > Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Sorrells et al. 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Each of these experiences threatens social safety in a different way and can therefore engage the social signal transduction pathways described above, leading to substantial changes in disease risk, cognition, and behavior”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Atop this list would be actual physical danger, such as being physically attacked, abused, or neglected. However, there are many other social circumstances a bit lower on the severity gradient that are also relevant, including social conflict, aggression, devaluation, discrimination, isolation, rejection, and exclusion (Slavich & Irwin 2014, Slavich et al. 2010a)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Slavich & Irwin 2014
- Not checked yetcites Slavich et al. 2010a
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Mounting an anticipatory inflammatory response to potential physical danger requires continually monitoring the extent to which the body is in a socially safe environment, and four neural networks support this capacity: the amygdala network, mentalizing network, empathy network, and mirror neuron system (Kennedy & Adolphs 2012)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > NEURAL NETWORKS REPRESENTING SOCIAL SAFETY
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kennedy & Adolphs 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Social threat is harmful for human health and behavior”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Current broad support for Social Safety Theory comes from several fields, including anthropology, psychology, sociology, epidemiology, and public health”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“humans have long inhabited a world filled with physical and microbial threats—including dangerous conspecifics, viruses, and bacteria—that can cause death and reduce reproductive success if not avoided or dealt with effectively”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Physical wounding threatens survival directly (e.g., through injury-induced bleeding) but also indirectly by enabling pathogens to enter the body through wounds created during social conflict”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Because the immune system cannot directly detect social circumstances that may increase risk for physical conflict or injury, it relies on the brain”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > NEURAL NETWORKS REPRESENTING SOCIAL SAFETY
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These activations can occur intermittently—for example, when engaged by occasional negative automatic thoughts about a potential threat in the environment—but they can also become prolonged, mediated by one’s social safety schemas about the self, social world, and future”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Social Safety Schemas
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“immune cells care about physical and social safety, not about a person’s financial resources or the size of his or her social network”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 1: Humans Evolved to Foster Social Safety
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“a fundamental drive to develop friendly social bonds, and to mount a systemic inflammatory response to social cues historically associated with increased physical danger, was likely highly conserved”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“humans have a well-known affinity for those most like themselves and a tendency to be hostile toward strangers (Bloom 2013), which historically enhanced their reproductive success and helped ensure their survival (Silk 2007).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 1: Humans Evolved to Foster Social Safety
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bloom 2013
- Not checked yetcites Silk 2007
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The resulting release of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α heightens threat sensitivity that can degrade experiences of social safety and increase perceptions of social threat.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Sleep
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These beneficial effects are similar in magnitude to quitting smoking and exceed those associated with traditional risk factors for mortality, such as obesity and physical inactivity.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 2: Social Safety Is Beneficial for Human Health and Behavior
plaincorrelationaln = 308,849- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Evidence of natural selection for prosociality first emerged about 2.6 million years ago in the Paleolithic period and it drove human self-domestication, enabling people to live, hunt, and gather together in small bands (Henrich 2015)”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 1: Humans Evolved to Foster Social Safety
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Henrich 2015
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“whereas social safety confers numerous benefits, social threat can degrade mental and physical health, lead to a variety of negative behaviors, and increase risk for biological aging and early mortality”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > EVIDENCE SUPPORTING SOCIAL SAFETY THEORY > Tenet 3: Social Threat Is Harmful for Human Health and Behavior
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Together, these data provide strong converging evidence that relative to individuals who are raised in rural environments, those who grow up in urban environments exhibit greater inflammatory responses to acute social threat in addition to poorer immunoregulatory/anti-inflammatory capability following such threat”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Childhood Microbial Environment
boostedcorrelationaln = 20- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Physical threats are the most impactful types of stressors from this evolutionary perspective, but such experiences are followed closely by social threats that historically increased risk for possible isolation, conflict, or wounding.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > CONCLUSION
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Over millennia, the cellular self evolved to monitor its surroundings, detect threats, and produce anticipatory biobehavioral responses that gave the greatest adaptive advantage.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“NSSI may thus represent a behavioral trigger that induces neuroinflammation, which exacerbates a person’s perceptions of social conflict, criticism, or exclusion, in turn leading to heightened emotional distress and an even greater propensity to engage in NSSI”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Self-Harm
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The resulting production of inflammatory cytokines increases neural threat sensitivity that can degrade perceptions of social safety and promote experiences of social threat (Zhang et al. 2010).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIAL SAFETY > Self-Harm
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zhang et al. 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Life stress has been a notoriously messy construct with little agreement about what actually matters (Cohen et al. 2019, Malat et al. 2017, Monroe & Slavich 2020).”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > CONCLUSION
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen et al. 2019
- Not checked yetcites Malat et al. 2017
- Not checked yetcites Monroe & Slavich 2020
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If we ask the human brain and immune system, though, they will tell us that social safety and social threat lie at the heart of life’s most impactful experiences.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > CONCLUSION
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Over millennia, the cellular self evolved to monitor its surroundings, detect threats, and produce anticipatory biobehavioral responses that gave the greatest adaptive advantage.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To address these problems and begin to understand the true underlying structure of life stress, I propose that we need only look to our cellular selves, which evolved over millennia to monitor the surrounding environment, detect potential threats, and mount anticipatory biobehavioral responses that conferred the greatest adaptive advantage.”
§ Social Safety Theory: A Biologically Based Evolutionary Perspective on Life Stress, Health, and Behavior > CONCLUSION
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Rests on an assumption: Over millennia, the cellular self evolved to monitor its surroundings, detect threats, and produce anticipatory biobehavioral responses that gave the greatest adaptive advantage.
The paper relies on this without support.
Sleep plays a central role in regulating biological processes that affect social cognition, health, and behavior.
“Sleep is a critical human behavior that plays a central role not just in everyday life but in regulating biological processes that affect social cognition, health, and behavior.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The benefit-to-cost ratio of the inflammatory response is greatest when it upregulates quickly and downregulates shortly after a threat has passed.
“Like other neural and physiological systems, the benefit-to-cost ratio of the inflammatory response is greatest when it upregulates quickly and then downregulates shortly after a threat has passed.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Objective characteristics of the social environment influence the extent to which people regard their surroundings as socially safe versus threatening.
“Because objective characteristics of the social environment influence the extent to which people generally regard their surroundings as socially safe versus threatening”
The paper relies on this without support.
Humans are embedded in a series of social safety circles that independently and interactively shape experiences of social safety and threat.
“humans are embedded in a series of social safety circles that independently and interactively shape moment-to-moment and lifelong experiences of social safety and threat (see Figure 2).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Over millennia, the cellular self evolved to monitor its surroundings, detect threats, and produce anticipatory biobehavioral responses that gave the greatest adaptive advantage.
“which evolved over millennia to monitor the surrounding environment, detect potential threats, and mount anticipatory biobehavioral responses that conferred the greatest adaptive advantage.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“The collective evidence linking systemic inflammation to the quality of social relationships and interactions is consistent with theory that threats to social safety (e.g., social conflict, isolation, rejection, exclusion) can undermine health (Slavich, 2020; also see Cole et al., 2015 for a related perspective on perceived social isolation and gene expression).”
From Social media use and systemic inflammation: The moderating role of self-esteem (2021) · cites this paper as Slavich, 2020
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Allen, K., Kern, M. L., Rozek, C. S., McInerney, D. M., & Slavich, G. M. (2021) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00049530.2021.1883409 · Cited by 1,283
“In conclusion, a sense of belonging is a core part of what makes us human (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Deci & Ryan, 2000; Slavich, 2020; Vaillant, 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationGruber, J., Prinstein, M. J., Clark, L. A., Rottenberg, J., Abramowitz, J. S., Albano, A. M., Aldao, A., Borelli, J. L., Chung, T., Davila, J., et al. (2021) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000707 · Cited by 697
“This possibility is also supported by contemporary models that articulate how stress affects psychological and biological systems associated with anxiety and depression (e.g., Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationTen Surprising Facts About Stressful Life Events and Disease Risk
Cohen, S., Murphy, M. L. M., & Prather, A. A. (2019) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-102857 · Cited by 531
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Polyvagal Theory: A Science of Safety
Porges, S. W. (2022) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2022.871227 · Cited by 399
“Others have proposed relationships between safety and stress (Bond et al., 2010; Dollard and McTernan, 2011; Brosschot et al., 2017; Slavich, 2020) that focus on constructs previously explored by the Polyvagal Theory (Porges, 2007).”
BackgroundCompassion: From Its Evolution to a Psychotherapy
Gilbert, P. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586161 · Cited by 365
“Recently, Slavich (2020) wrote extensively on what he called social safety theory linking a whole range of physiological systems and their interactions including: the immune system, hypothalamic Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 12 December 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 586161 pituitary…”
BackgroundBürgin, D., Anagnostopoulos, D. C., the Board and Policy Division of ESCAP, Anagnostopoulos, D. C., Doyle, M., D, S. E. M., Fegert, J. M., Fuentes, J., Hebebrand, J., Hillegers, M. H. J., et al. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-022-01974-z · Cited by 367
“Within social safety theory, cognitive schemas of social safety are thought to develop during childhood and adolescence in relation to a child’s appraisal of themself, the social world, and the projected future [39].”
BackgroundInfluentialBickman, L. (2020) · Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research · doi:10.1007/s10488-020-01065-8 · Cited by 184
“A key aspect of this perspective is the role of inflammatory cytokines as key mediators of the inflammatory response (Slavich 2020).”
BackgroundQu, D., Wen, X., Liu, B., Zhang, X., He, Y., Chen, D., Duan, X., Yu, J., Liu, D., Zhang, X., et al. (2023) · The Lancet Regional Health - Western Pacific · doi:10.1016/j.lanwpc.2023.100794 · Cited by 198
Are social isolation and loneliness associated with cognitive decline in ageing?
Cardona, M., & Andrés, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1075563 · Cited by 197
“…as an evolutionarily conserved mechanism to terminate separation distress (Watt and Panksepp, 2009; Panksepp and Watt, 2011; Watt, 2014; also see Slavich, 2020; social safety theory), placing social loss at the center of the neurobiological dynamics (e.g., inflammation, altered HPA axis…”
BackgroundStress-induced biological aging: A review and guide for research priorities
Polsky, L. R., Rentscher, K. E., & Carroll, J. (2022) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2022.05.016 · Cited by 193
“(Dantzer et al., 2008; Irwin and Cole, 2011; Miller, 2008; Slavich, 2020; Sloan et al., 2008) Specifically, the SNS regulates the inflammatory response via the production and transportation of NE. (McEwen, 2007) In response to stress, NE interacts with beta-adrenergic receptors on the surface of…”
BackgroundSocial Safety Theory: Conceptual foundation, underlying mechanisms, and future directions
Slavich, G. M., Roos, L. G., Mengelkoch, S., Webb, C. A., Shattuck, E. C., Moriarity, D. P., & Alley, J. C. (2023) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2023.2171900 · Cited by 193
“…but hygienic urban environments minimize the frequency and diversity of microbial exposures and thus provide fewer opportunities for the immune system to practice upregulating inflammatory activity when it is needed and downregulating inflammation when it is no longer required (Slavich, 2020a).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationSex differences and psychological stress: responses to the COVID-19 pandemic in China
宋康兴, Xu, R., Stratton, T. D., Kavcic, V., Luo, D., Hou, F., Bi, F., Jiao, R., Yan, S., & Jiang, Y. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-020-10085-w · Cited by 168
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Morais, A. H. D. A., Aquino, J. D. S., da Silva-Maia, J. K., Vale, S. H. D. L., Maciel, B. L. L., & Passos, T. S. (2020) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114520003311 · Cited by 127
“According to Slavich (15) , social ties ’ maintenance is a fundamental organiser principle of human behaviour, and threats to social security are critical characteristics of psychological stressors that raise the risk of diseases; hence, lifestyle interventions that mitigate the inflammation and support the immune sys…”
Are friends electric? The benefits and risks of human-robot relationships
Prescott, T. J., & Robillard, J. M. (2020) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2020.101993 · Cited by 119
“Our social drive, by contrast, is not about correcting an immediate homeostatic imbalance that, without action, would become a threat to life, although it has evolved to be closely tied to these core life processes (Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundSeiler, A., von Känel, R., & Slavich, G. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2020.565239 · Cited by 119
“Third, studies investigating the biological bases of stress resilience will be important for elucidating processes that may help promote psychosocial resilience to interpersonal loss (203).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe geroscience agenda: Toxic stress, hormetic stress, and the rate of aging
Epel, E. S. (2020) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2020.101167 · Cited by 110
“…threats (such as social rejection, discrimination, violence, and lack of safety) creates higher chronic systemic inflammation and sympathetic arousal, even while sleeping, and greater risk of affective disorders (Brosschot et al., 2017; O’Donovan et al., 2013; Slavich, 2020; Slavich et al., 2010).”
McLoughlin, E., Fletcher, D., Slavich, G. M., Arnold, R., & Moore, L. J. (2020) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101823 · Cited by 133
“A growing body of work suggests that major life stressors that include interpersonal loss and humiliation are particularly harmful for health (e.g., Kendler, Hettema, Butera, Gardner, & Prescott, 2003; Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGruber, J., Prinstein, M. J., Abramowitz, J. S., Albano, A. M., Aldao, A., Borelli, J. L., Clark, L. A., Davila, J., Forbes, E. E., Gee, D. G., et al. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/desg9 · Cited by 104
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“C ortisol is the primary glucocorticoid hormone released by the body in response to stress, 1,2 with chronic cortisol levels leading to various pathophysiologies.”
BackgroundSlavich, G. M. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101299 · Cited by 97
“Republished from Slavich (2020) [8], with permission from Annual Reviews. monitors the internal biological environment and responds quickly when microbial infection or tissue damage are detected [9].”
Self-citationAshton-James, C. E., Anderson, S. R., Mackey, S., & Darnall, B. D. (2021) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002404 · Cited by 80
Slavich, G. M., Roos, L. G., & Zaki, J. (2021) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2021.1950695 · Cited by 82
“…depression, cardiovascular disease, and autoimmune and neurodegenerative disorders, and toward a more anti-viral state, which decreases individuals’ susceptibility to viruses such as the common cold and, possibly, COVID-19 (Cohen, 2021; Furman et al., 2019; Shields et al., 2020; Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGilbert, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.582090 · Cited by 77
“In other words, social experiences shape phenotypes via epigenetic effects which in turn impacts the maturation of numerous physiological systems (Cowan et al., 2016; Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialPalamarchuk, I. S., & Vaillancourt, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2021.719674 · Cited by 105
“…cognition and increase the risk of mental and social dysfunction, as well as neural and systemic inflammation (e.g., Shin and Handwerger, 2009; Hassija et al., 2012; Latack et al., 2017; Auxéméry, 2018; Mills et al., 2019; Quinones et al., 2020; Slavich, 2020; Vaillancourt and Palamarchuk, 2021).”
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The role of social connection on the experience of COVID-19 related post-traumatic growth and stress
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“Therefore, in the face of adversity, having a sense of social connection and affiliation is a critical psychosocial strategy for promoting adjustment, resilience, and growth [21].”
BackgroundLifetime and perceived stress, social support, loneliness, and health in autistic adults.
Moseley, R. L., Turner-Cobb, J. M., Spahr, C. M., Shields, G. S., & Slavich, G. M. (2021) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0001108 · Cited by 71
“Ultimately, stress exposure is known to heighten the risk of psychiatric illness alongside cardiovascular, autoimmune, and neurodegenerative diseases and to predict early mortality, especially for stressors that are interpersonal in nature and occur early in life (Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationYue, J.-L., Yan, W., Sun, Y., Yuan, K., Su, S.-Z., Han, Y., Ravindran, A. V., Kosten, T. R., Everall, I., Davey, C. G., et al. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291720003888 · Cited by 65
“Investing in the collection of evidence on the outcomes, workforce requirements, patient engagement, and ethical uses of tele-mental health services will allow them to truly deliver their full potential (Smith et al., 2020).”
BackgroundLullau, A. P. M., Haga, E. M. W., Ronold, E. H., & Dwyer, G. E. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1223145 · Cited by 65
“Importantly, stress-induced alterations of glucocorticoid function and sensitivity can hinder HPA axis-regulation of stress and inflammation and reprogram immune cells towards an increasingly proinflammatory state, which can cause degeneration of brain areas involved in stress-and inflammatory responses (McGowan et al…”
BackgroundKunz, N., & Kemper, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.629986 · Cited by 63
Madison, A. A., & Bailey, M. T. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2023.10.014 · Cited by 68
Shields, G. S., Fassett-Carman, A. N., Gray, Z. J., Gonzales, J. E., Snyder, H. R., & Slavich, G. M. (2022) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3165 · Cited by 70
“This is thus consistent with theories of stress and health that posit that subjective appraisals of stress are integral to initiating stress responses and thus producing detrimental consequences of stress (Abramson et al., 2002; Slavich, 2020, 2022; Slavich & Cole, 2013).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationFinley, A. J., & Schaefer, S. M. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatry and Brain Science · doi:10.20900/jpbs.20220011 · Cited by 79
“…subjective perceptions of isolation, trigger a specific immune response tuned to prepare for physical injuries (more likely to happen when a social animal is isolated from a social group) and reduce preparedness for viral infections (less likely to happen when isolated from a social group) [35,36].”
BackgroundResultMilas, G., Klarić, I. M., Malnar, A., Saftić, V., Šupe‐Domić, D., & Slavich, G. M. (2021) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3050 · Cited by 80
“…we examined interrelations between several factors known to be associated with health in adolescents (McKnight et al., 2002; Seiffge‐ Krenke, 2019; Slavich, 2016, 2020), and derived a priori hypotheses regarding their relation from the extensive stress and coping literature (Lazarus & Folkman,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationWhole-Child Development, Learning, and Thriving
Cantor, P., Lerner, R. M., Pittman, K. J., Chase, P. A., & Gomperts, N. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108954600 · Cited by 74
Human social genomics: Concepts, mechanisms, and implications for health
Slavich, G. M., Mengelkoch, S., & Cole, S. W. (2023) · Lifestyle Medicine · doi:10.1002/lim2.75 · Cited by 63
“27,92 Recent research using the shelter-in-place restrictions enacted during the global coronavirus pandemic as a natural experiment of social isolation found that whereas in-person social connection was associated with reduced CTRA expression, online social connection was not.”
BackgroundSelf-citationDedoncker, J., Vanderhasselt, M., Ottaviani, C., & Slavich, G. M. (2021) · Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.010 · Cited by 49
“This central role for social isolation and rejection in affecting health is consistent with Social Safety Theory (Slavich, 2020a), which posits that social isolation and rejection strongly upregulate inflammatory activity, and with Social Baseline Theory, which argues that the social network is the primary source of s…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationKilius, E., Abbas, N. H., McKinnon, L., & Samson, D. R. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.644636 · Cited by 55
“Revonsuo and Valli (2008) later clarified that threats are not necessarily physical, but can include what Slavich (2020) calls threats to social safety, including isolation, exclusion from the group, and death or illness of a genetic relative (Revonsuo and Valli, 2008), all of which threaten…”
BackgroundA systematic review of associations between emotion regulation characteristics and inflammation
Moriarity, D. P., Grehl, M. M., Walsh, R. F. L., Roos, L. G., Slavich, G. M., & Alloy, L. B. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105162 · Cited by 58
“Social Safety Theory argues that social safety schemas (socially-specific schemas about social safety or threat) are of particular importance for biological and psychological health (Slavich, 2020, 2022; Slavich et al., 2023).”
BackgroundSelf-citationGilbert, P. (2024) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12466 · Cited by 66
Oxytocin, cortisol, and cognitive control during acute and naturalistic stress
Kuchenbecker, S. Y., Pressman, S., Celniker, J. B., Grewen, K. M., Sumida, K. D., Jonathan, N., Everett, B., & Slavich, G. M. (2021) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2021.1876658 · Cited by 44
Self-citationCompassion as a Skill: A Comparison of Contemplative and Evolution-Based Approaches
Gilbert, P., & Gordon, W. V. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02173-w · Cited by 64
“…evolutionary challenges (Gilbert, 1989, 2005; Gilbert, 2020a; Gilbert, 2020b; Gilbert & Simos, 2022; Goetz et al., 2010; Keltner et al., 2014; Slavich, 2020) with various psychophysiological mediators (Favre et al., 2021; Kim et al., 2020; Petroc-chi et al., 2022; Seppälä et al., 2017;…”
BackgroundInfluentialMengelkoch, S., Moriarity, D. P., Novak, A. M., Snyder, M. P., Slavich, G. M., & Lev‐Ari, S. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm13010024 · Cited by 55
“Humans are inherently social creatures, and our social interactions and their quality influence our stress levels and well-being by influencing perceptions of social safety [36–38].”
BackgroundSelf-citationBeyond social withdrawal: New perspectives on the effects of inflammation on social behavior
Muscatell, K. A., & Inagaki, T. K. (2021) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100302 · Cited by 45
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“Emerging theoretical models further posit that such hypervigilance-inducing appraisals may be shaped by early and ongoing adversity exposure and by resulting social-safety schemas (Brosschot et al., 2017; Slavich, 2020), particularly during formative development periods such as young adulthood (Brosschot et al.”
BackgroundSocial cohesion and loneliness are associated with the antibody response to COVID-19 vaccination
Gallagher, S. M., Howard, S., Muldoon, O. T., & Whittaker, A. C. (2022) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2022.04.017 · Cited by 42
“cytokines and therefore an individuals’ risk for viral infections and other immune-related disorders (Leschak & Eisenberger, 2019; Shattuck, 2021; Slavich, 2020).”
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Workplace Belonging of Women Healthcare Professionals Relates to Likelihood of Leaving
Schaechter, J. D., Goldstein, R., ZAFONTE, R. D., & Silver, J. K. (2023) · Journal of Healthcare Leadership · doi:10.2147/jhl.s431157 · Cited by 51
Increased inflammation predicts nine-year change in major depressive disorder diagnostic status.
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The future is dynamic: A call for intensive longitudinal data in immunopsychiatry
Moriarity, D. P., & Slavich, G. M. (2023) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2023.06.002 · Cited by 35
“…2002, 2004), regulation of emotions during acute immune responses (Hansson et al., 2021), interplay between social processes and immune biology (Slavich, 2020; Slavich, 2022; Slavich et al., 2023), inflammation and depression (Moriarity et al., 2020), antiinflammatory effects of psychotherapy…”
BackgroundSelf-citationInteraction-Shaping Robotics: Robots That Influence Interactions between Other Agents
Gillet, S., Vázquez, M., Andrist, S., Leite, I., & Sebo, S. S. (2024) · ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction · doi:10.1145/3643803 · Cited by 51
“On the contrary, when relationships between people are negative or nonexistent, people suffer from social rejection, loneliness, and poorer physical health [57, 116].”
BackgroundThe impact of stress on sleep quality: a mediation analysis based on longitudinal data
Zhang, J., Xiang, S., Li, X., Tang, Y., & Hu, Q. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1431234 · Cited by 49
No safety without emotional safety
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Brain–body pathways linking racism and health.
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“Social safety means the environment offers experiences of acceptance, belonging, and inclusion and is free of social threats in the form of emotional distress or social status harm such as judging, shaming, or excluding (Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundThe effect of social integration on outcomes after major lower extremity amputation
Hawkins, A. T., Pallangyo, A. J., Herman, A. M., Schaumeier, M. J., Smith, A. D., Hevelone, N. D., Crandell, D. M., & Nguyen, L. L. (2015) · Journal of Vascular Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.jvs.2015.07.100 · Cited by 37
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“Indeed, recent theories offer a compelling explanation of the interplay of stress and inflammation in the etiology of depression (Slavich, 2020; Slavich and Irwin, 2014).”
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“In this respect, social stress is known to be associated with a low immune response [91], and social situation of menace, panic or continuous pressure, can seriously impair the immune system.”
BackgroundGillespie, S. L., Christian, L. M., Mackos, A. R., Nolan, T. S., Gondwe, K. W., Anderson, C. M., Hall, M. W., Williams, K. P., & Slavich, G. M. (2022) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2022.01.008 · Cited by 36
“…discriminant, and predictive validity, and excellent test–retest reliability of up to 0.953 over one month, including in primarily female samples (Cazassa, Oliveira, Spahr, Shields, & Slavich, 2020; Dooley, Slavich, Moreno, & Bower, 2017; Shields, Moons, & Slavich, 2017; Slavich & Shields, 2018).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationGamaiunova, L., Kreibig, S. D., Dan-Glauser, E., Pellerin, N., Brandt, P.-Y., & Kliegel, M. (2022) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2022.108384 · Cited by 37
“We aimed to investigate the effects of two MBIs on the psychophysiological stress response over distinct temporal stages of the TSST across multiple response systems: HPA axis, SAM system, both branches of the ANS (SNS/PNS), and negative and positive affect.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAnnual Research Review: Social relationships and the immune system during development
Robles, T. F. (2020) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13350 · Cited by 37
Cooper, J. A., Nuutinen, M. R., Lawlor, V. M., DeVries, B. A. M., Barrick, E. M., Hossein, S., Cole, D. J., Leonard, C. V., Hahn, E. C., Teer, A. P., et al. (2021) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-021-23284-9 · Cited by 36
“Toxic stressors are frequently characterized by a lack of predictability and controllability 4 and are often related to social threat, such as isolation, rejection, and exclusion 5,6 .”
Self-citationCao, B., Zhao, Y., Ren, Z., McIntyre, R. S., Teopiz, K. M., Gao, X., & Ding, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.697484 · Cited by 41
The experience of loneliness: The role of fears of compassion and social safeness
Best, T., Herring, L., Clarke, C., Kirby, J. N., & Gilbert, P. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111161 · Cited by 37
Burani, K., Brush, C. J., Shields, G. S., Klein, D. N., Nelson, B. D., Slavich, G. M., & Hajcak, G. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722001386 · Cited by 35
“…and behavioral outcomes (Slavich et al., 2019) as has its sister instrument, the Adult STRAIN (Banica, Sandre, Shields, Slavich, & Weinberg, 2020, 2021; Cazassa, da Oliveira, Spahr, Shields, & Slavich, 2020; Slavich & Shields, 2018; Sturmbauer, Shields, Hetzel, Rohleder, & Slavich, 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationKelly, C. A., Trumpff, C., Acosta, C., Assuras, S., Baker, J., Basarrate, S., Behnke, A., Bo, K., Bobba‐Alves, N., Champagne, F. A., et al. (2024) · Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.tem.2024.08.006 · Cited by 35
“It also includes chronic psychosocial states such as social isolation and loneliness, as well as positive exposures such as actual and perceived social support and social safety [75 – 77].”
Self-citationSlavich, G. M., Shields, G. S., Deal, B., Gregory, A., & Toussaint, L. L. (2019) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kaz015 · Cited by 30
Self-citationMorese, R., & Palermo, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.896218 · Cited by 36
“It is likely that anticipatory neural-immune reactivity to social threat is highly conserved due to situations of social conflict, isolation, devaluation, rejection, and exclusion historically increasing risk of physical injury and infection (Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialEmotions, relationships, health and illness into old age
Uchino, B. N., & Rook, K. S. (2020) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2020.05.014 · Cited by 41
“Social safety is seen as a fundamental human need, and any threats to it can trigger epigenetic changes, that if prolonged over time, can be detrimental to health [48].”
BackgroundSex differences and Psychological Stress: Responses to the COVID-19 epidemic in ChinaPreprint
Song, K., Xu, R., Stratton, T. D., et al. (2020) · medRxiv · doi:10.1101/2020.04.29.20084061 · Cited by 31
Does inflammation link stress to poor COVID‐19 outcome?
Lamontagne, S. J., Pizzagalli, D. A., & Olmstead, M. C. (2020) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3017 · Cited by 30
“, isolation) promote negative health outcomes, such as viral infection and inflammatory‐related diseases (Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundRisk and protective factors for stress generation: A meta-analytic review
Santee, A. C., Rnic, K., Chang, K. K., Chen, R. X., Hoffmeister, J.-A., Liu, H., LeMoult, J., Dozois, D. J. A., & Starr, L. R. (2023) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2023.102299 · Cited by 39
Alley, J. C., Gassen, J., & Slavich, G. M. (2024) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2024.07.019 · Cited by 32
“…screening patients ’ stress levels or tailoring adjunctive stress management programs to focus on the specific biological pathways that are maximally disrupted across individuals (Malat et al., 2017; McBain et al., 2023; Princip et al., 2022; Valderhaug and Slavich, 2020; Wulsin et al., 2022).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLynch, J. M., Stange, K. C., Dowrick, C. F., Getz, L., Meredith, P. J., van Driel, M., Harris, M., Tillack, K., & Tapp, C. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1441493 · Cited by 41
“…of Motivation (Maslow, 1943), Allostatic Load Theory (McEwen, 2007; Lupien et al., 2009), Polyvagal Theory (Porges, 2011), Social Safety Theory (Slavich, 2020), Generalized Unsafety Theory of Stress (Brosschot et al., 2018), Theory of Human Security (Blatz, 1973) and Interpersonal Theory…”
InfluentialMengelkoch, S., Rose, S. M. S., Lautman, Z., Alley, J. C., Roos, L. G., Ehlert, B., Moriarity, D. P., Lancaster, S. M., Snyder, M. P., & Slavich, G. M. (2023) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2023.07.022 · Cited by 30
“…influences gene expression, combining genomics and transcriptomics data can elucidate the mechanisms through which social-environmental factors, such as life stress and adversity, impact health and promote disease risk (Slavich, 2020b, 2022; Slavich et al., 2023a, Slavich et al., 2023b).”
BackgroundSelf-citationReid, B. M., & Georgieff, M. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15173798 · Cited by 38
“This definition includes real and interpreted physical danger from another individual, whether through physical assault, abuse, or neglect, and social conflict and isolation [8].”
BackgroundBratman, G. N., Mehta, A., Alvarez, H. A. O., Spink, K. M., Levy, C., White, M. P., Kubzansky, L. D., & Gross, J. J. (2024) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2024.2316199 · Cited by 40
“For example, with respect to stress speci fi cally, the determination of “ what makes stress stressful ” depends upon a variety of factors that are related to an individual ’ s speci fi c relationship with social and physical environments (Bratman & Olvera-Alvarez, 2022; Sapolsky, 2015; Slavich, 2020).”
Giollabhui, N. M., Slaney, C., Hemani, G., Foley, É. M., van der Most, P. J., Nolte, I. M., Snieder, H., Smith, G. D., Khandaker, G. M., & Hartman, C. A. (2025) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-025-03372-w · Cited by 51
Moriarity, D. P., Ellman, L. M., Coe, C. L., Olino, T. M., & Alloy, L. B. (2021) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100391 · Cited by 27
“First, many theories and hypotheses are described in terms of “inflammation” (e.g., Dooley et al., 2018; Miller et al., 2009; Moriarity et al., 2018; Slavich, 2020), not individual proteins, underscoring a disconnect between theory and analysis.”
BackgroundThe Compassionate Communities Connectors model for end-of-life care: implementation and evaluation
Aoun, S. M., RICHMOND, R. L., Gunton, K., Noonan, K., Abel, J., & Rumbold, B. D. (2022) · Palliative Care and Social Practice · doi:10.1177/26323524221139655 · Cited by 28
Toussaint, L. L., Lee, J. A., Hyun, M., Shields, G. S., & Slavich, G. M. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23376 · Cited by 26
“Finally, biological pathways that may underlie associations between forgiveness and depression have been discussed (e.g., Slavich et al., 2019; Slavich, 2020), but the present data do not speak to these potential biological mediators.”
BackgroundSelf-citationFeeling Safe and Nostalgia in Healthy Aging
Fleury, J., Sedikides, C., Wildschut, T., Coon, D. W., & Komnenich, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.843051 · Cited by 29
“Theory and empirical research converge on feeling safe as essential to intrinsic capacity in healthy aging (Slavich, 2020; Porges, 2021; Thayer et al., 2021).”
BackgroundTsomokos, D. I., & Slavich, G. M. (2024) · Nature Mental Health · doi:10.1038/s44220-024-00203-7 · Cited by 29
“…crisis is through the lens of Social Safety Theory, which posits that maintaining close social bonds is a fundamental organizing principle of human health and behavior, and that threats to social connection, such as peer bullying and social rejection, are especially detrimental for health 8,9 .”
InfluentialSelf-citationThe separation distress hypothesis of depression – an update and systematic review
Watt, D. F. (2023) · Neuropsychoanalysis · doi:10.1080/15294145.2023.2240340 · Cited by 25
Hazlett, L. I., Moieni, M., Irwin, M. R., Haltom, K. E. B., Jevtic, I., Meyer, M. L., Breen, E. C., Cole, S. W., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2021) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2021.04.019 · Cited by 32
“…adds to the growing body of scholarship showing us how deeply the emotions and actions that nurture social relationships affect our physiology (Eisenberger & Cole, 2012; Slavich, 2020), and the importance of giving support to others for health and well-being (Brown et al., 2003; Inagaki, 2018).”
Cohen, E. E. A., Davis, A., & Taylor, J. (2022) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12351 · Cited by 29
“This, in turn, enhances positive affect, psychosocial functioning, and health via multiple direct and indirect pathways (Cohen, 2004; Slavich, 2020).”
Bürgin, D., Clemens, V., Witt, A., Sachser, C., Jud, A., Brähler, E., Strauss, B. M., Petrowski, K., Schmid, M., & Fegert, J. M. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106382 · Cited by 27
Parra, L. A., Spahr, C. M., Goldbach, J. T., Bray, B. C., Kipke, M. D., & Slavich, G. M. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23463 · Cited by 26
“consistent with a stressor characteristics perspective on stress and health (Slavich et al., 2010; Slavich, 2020), we examined whether associations between life stressors and health differed by exposure timing, primary life domain, and core social‐psychological characteristics, which is critical to developing a more c…”
BackgroundSelf-citationCOVID‐19's multipronged attack on mental health
Nelson, B., & Kaminsky, D. (2020) · Cancer Cytopathology · doi:10.1002/cncy.22364 · Cited by 22
Networks, cultures, and institutions: Toward a social immunology
Shattuck, E. C. (2021) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100367 · Cited by 23
“Indeed, humans may be more sensitive to perturbations in social environments than in physical ones (e.g., Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundMulti-omics in stress and health research: study designs that will drive the field forward
Mengelkoch, S., Gassen, J., Lev‐Ari, S., Alley, J. C., Rose, S. M. S., Snyder, M. P., & Slavich, G. M. (2024) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2024.2321610 · Cited by 26
“…system—are attuned to social threats because throughout evolutionary history, these situations signaled elevated risk of injury and infection (see Slavich, 2020; Slavich, 2022; Slavich et al., 2023). there is also evidence that individual differences in the perception of, and response to,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationSocial media use and systemic inflammation: The moderating role of self-esteem
Lee, D. S., & Way, B. M. (2021) · Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100300 · Cited by 21
“…of social relationships and interactions is consistent with theory that threats to social safety (e.g., social conflict, isolation, rejection, exclusion) can undermine health (Slavich, 2020; also see Cole et al., 2015 for a related perspective on perceived social isolation and gene expression).”
BackgroundBroadening Defense Mechanisms: Literature Review and Discussion
Young, G. (2021) · Causality and Neo-Stages in Development · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-82540-9_11 · Cited by 2
Caldwell, J., Kinney, J. W., Ritter, A. R., Salazar, A., Wong, C. G., Cordes, D., & Slavich, G. M. (2020) · Brain Behavior and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2020.12.001 · Cited by 23
Self-citationFighting COVID-19: social capital and community mobilisation in Hong Kong
Lau, P. Y. F. (2020) · International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy · doi:10.1108/ijssp-08-2020-0377 · Cited by 22
McLoughlin, E., Arnold, R., Fletcher, D., Spahr, C. M., Slavich, G. M., & Moore, L. J. (2021) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102078 · Cited by 24
“, sympathetic nervous system, immunological response) pathways (Arnold & Fletcher, 2021; Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Slavich, G. M.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Slavich, George M.
- ORCID
- Slavich, George M.
- Venue
- Annual Review of Clinical Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2020-05-07
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 265-295
- ISSN
- 1548-5943 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-5951
- PMC
- PMC7213777
- OpenAlex
- W3010515129
- Semantic Scholar
- d8142b2861b06dc7bd40175c1223b71e1205ed01
- Cited by
- 502
- References
- 159
- Citations by year
- 2026: 130 · 2025: 90 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 71 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 49 · 2020: 19
- FWCI
- 5.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression (K08 MH103443, 23958)
- National Institutes of Health (23958)
- National Institute of Mental Health (K08MH103443)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Keywords
- social bonds, social danger, psychological stress, neuroimmune interactions, inflammation, viral infection, social rejection, social isolation, evolutionary psychology, disease risk, threat response
- MeSH terms
- Biological Evolution, Humans, Inflammation, Psychological Theory, Safety, Social Behavior, Stress, Psychological
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