Compassion: From Its Evolution to a Psychotherapy
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The concept, benefits and recommendations for the cultivation of compassion have been recognized in the contemplative traditions for thousands of years. In the last 30 years or so, the study of compassion has revealed it to have major physiological and psychological effects influencing well-being, addressing mental health difficulties, and promoting prosocial behavior. This paper outlines an evolution informed biopsychosocial, multicomponent model to caring behavior and its derivative “compassion” that underpins newer approaches to psychotherapy. The paper explores the origins of caring motives and the nature and biopsychosocial functions of caring-attachment behavior. These include providing a secure base (sources of protection, validation, encouragement and guidance) and safe haven (source of soothing and comfort) for offspring along with physiological regulating functions, which are also central for compassion focused therapy. Second, it suggests that it is the way recent human cognitive competencies give rise to different types of “mind awareness” and “knowing intentionality” that transform basic caring motives into potentials for compassion. While we can care for our gardens and treasured objects, the concept of compassion is only used for sentient beings who can “suffer.” As psychotherapy addresses mental suffering, cultivating the motives and competencies of compassion to self and others can be a central focus for psychotherapy.
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Within Gilbert's theory, psychological distress can be understood as the result of hyperactivation of the threat and drive systems, whereas self-compassion facilitates emotional regulation via activation of the affiliative or soothing system.
“Within Gilbert's (2020) well‐known theory of self‐compassion, psychological distress can be understood as the result of the hyperactivation of the threat and drive systems, whereas self‐compassion facilitates emotional regulation via activation of the affiliative or soothing system.”
From The Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Self‐Compassion and Psychological Outcomes in Adult Populations: A Systematic Review. (2025) · cites this paper as Gilbert 2020
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredA more general conceptual problem in the field is the conceptual overlap of constructs related to self-compassion, mindfulness, and emotion regulation.
“A more general conceptual problem in the field is the conceptual overlap of constructs related to self‐compassion, mindfulness, and emotion regulation (Gilbert 2020; Gu et al. 2015; Neff 2003a, 2003b).”
From The Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Self‐Compassion and Psychological Outcomes in Adult Populations: A Systematic Review. (2025) · cites this paper as Gilbert 2020
In “From Caring to Compassion: The Knowing Mind” (page unavailable), Gilbert identifies a conceptual and measurement problem in models that combine self-criticism, shame, and kindness under self-compassion. “Mapping the Mind” (page unavailable) relates mindfulness to compassion and emotions, but treats mindfulness and compassion as separate competencies. The paper therefore supports a concern about conceptual boundaries, not the specific claim of overlap among self-compassion, mindfulness, and emotion regulation. (LLM, conf=0.77)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredGilbert distinguishes between a stimulus-response algorithm that identifies distinct skills and competencies in two different stages (engagement and action), versus a cluster-diagnostic approach which identifies core processes that are commonly understood as related but may vary in how they group together.
“Gilbert [123] distinguishes between a stimulus-response algorithm that identifies distinct skills and competencies in two different stages (engagement and action), versus a cluster-diagnostic approach which identifies core processes that are commonly understood as related but may vary in how they group together.”
From Validation of the compassionate engagement and action scales, compassion scale, and Sussex-Oxford compassion scales in a French-Canadian sample (2024) · cites this paper as [123]
Self-compassion encompasses elements of mindfulness.
“Self‐compassion encompasses elements of mindfulness, as the first step in being compassionate is to be aware and acknowledge suffering, with an open, nonjudging attitude and non‐reactivity (Gilbert 2020; Neff 2003a; Strauss et al. 2016).”
From The Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Self‐Compassion and Psychological Outcomes in Adult Populations: A Systematic Review. (2025) · cites this paper as Gilbert 2020
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BackgroundMuris, P., & Otgaar, H. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01363-0 · Cited by 162 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Identifying core processes can help us to share conceptualizations but the exact phenomenon included in a cluster or factor can vary, sometimes quite considerably and in the clinical sciences be unreliable ways of identifying specific syndromes [see for example the controversies on one approach to self-compassion (Mur…”
BackgroundWisdom and compassion in psychotherapy: Deepening mindfulness in clinical practice.
Germer, C. K., & Siegel, R. (2012) · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Di Bello, M., Carnevali, L., Petrocchi, N., Thayer, J. F., Gilbert, P., & Ottaviani, C. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.06.016 · Cited by 154 · cited 3× · see citing works
“…compassion training has been shown to produce changes in the autonomic nervous system as measured by heart rate variability (Matos et al., 2017; Di Bello et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2020c; Steffen et al., 2020) in the immune system (Pace et al., 2009) and in various cortical areas (Weng et …”
BackgroundSelf-citationNeurophysiological and behavioural markers of compassion
Kim, J. J., Parker, S. L., Doty, J. R., Cunnington, R., Gilbert, P., & Kirby, J. N. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-63846-3 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Self-citationMindful awareness, mindsight, and neural integration.
Siegel, D. J. (2009) · The Humanistic Psychologist · doi:10.1080/08873260902892220 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Against empathy: The case for rational compassion
Shackford, S. R. (2018) · The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care · doi:10.1097/ta.0000000000002071 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
The social brain and heart rate variability: Implications for psychotherapy
Petrocchi, N., & Cheli, S. (2019) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12224 · Cited by 134 · cited 7× · see citing works
“Changes to the autonomic nervous system, particularly the myelination of the 10th cranial nerve of the parasympathetic system which evolved to become the vagus nerve, played a significant role in the regulation of threat and the soothing qualities of connectedness (Porges, 2007, 2017; Stellar and Keltner, 2017; Petroc…”
BackgroundInfluentialZero degrees of empathy: A new theory of human cruelty
Albertyn, L. (2012) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.2989/17280583.2012.735509 · Cited by 130 · cited 2× · see citing works
“A second major competency relates to forms of empathy and mind awareness (Decety and Ickes, 2009; Baron-Cohen, 2011), which many see as essential to compassion.”
BackgroundDefence and safety: Their function in social behaviour and psychopathology
Gilbert, P. (1993) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1993.tb01039.x · Cited by 130 · cited 2× · see citing works
“It was the late primatologist Chance (1988), who became a colleague and who on reading my paper on safety and threat (Gilbert, 1993) advised me that I needed to more clearly separate these functions.”
BackgroundSelf-citationKelly, A. C., Zuroff, D. C., Leybman, M. J., & Gilbert, P. (2012) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-011-9432-5 · Cited by 128 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Priming people in attachment security (or social safeness; Kelly et al., 2012) impacts positively on how people process a range of potentially threat-based scenarios, including tendencies to make them more pro-social.”
BackgroundSelf-citationCowan, C. S. M., Callaghan, B. L., Kan, J. M., & Richardson, R. (2015) · Genes Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12263 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Hermanto, N., & Zuroff, D. C. (2016) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2015.1135779 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Psychotherapy and Counselling for Depression
Gilbert, P. (2007) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446279830 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Self-citationMascaro, J. S., Florian, M. P., Ash, M. J., Palmer, P. K., Frazier, T., Condon, P., & Raison, C. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.547241 · Cited by 118 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Hence, the psychotherapy of the future will look somewhat different to what we have today and be a much more biopsychosocial process (Mascaro et al., 2020) and concerned with ethics and pro social behavior in all dimensions of social relating.”
BackgroundInfluentialAttachment-security priming attenuates amygdala activation to social and linguistic threat
Norman, L. J., Lawrence, N., Iles, A. T., Benattayallah, A., & Karl, A. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsu127 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Gilbert, P. (2019) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12226 · Cited by 114 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Third, as noted below, the evolution of complex cognitive competencies has had profound effects on how these human algorithms, motives, and emotions work (Barrett, 2017; Gilbert, 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citationKumashiro, M., & Sedikides, C. (2005) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01603.x · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Differences in the Semantics of Prosocial Words: an Exploration of Compassion and Kindness
Gilbert, P., Basran, J. K., MacArthur, M., & Kirby, J. N. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01191-x · Cited by 108 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Third, as noted below, the evolution of complex cognitive competencies has had profound effects on how these human algorithms, motives, and emotions work (Barrett, 2017; Gilbert, 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citationKelly, A. C., & Dupasquier, J. R. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.10.017 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Lawrence, V. A., & Lee, D. (2013) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1854 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Development of a striving to avoid inferiority scale
Gilbert, P., Broomhead, C., Irons, C., McEwan, K., Bellew, R., Mills, A., Gale, C., & Knibb, R. C. (2006) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466606x157789 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Self-citationPaternal care in a fish: epigenetics and fitness enhancing effects on offspring anxiety
McGhee, K. E., & Bell, A. M. (2014) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2014.1146 · Cited by 98 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As we will see, this algorithm is very ancient; the provision of care for the purpose of protecting, addressing needs, and supporting flourishing in offspring, can even be detected in fish (McGhee and Bell, 2014).”
BackgroundMentalizing, Attachment, and Epistemic Trust in Group Therapy
Fonagy, P., Campbell, C., & BATEMAN, A. W. (2017) · International Journal of Group Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/00207284.2016.1263156 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
The price of civilization: reawakening American virtue and prosperity
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“Taxes were high; however, the gradual eroding of that ambition with desires to pay lower taxes and hold more of one’s personal resources under neoliberalism, western society has increasingly focused on competitive motives in education and life in general (Sachs, 2012; Twenge Miller and Campbell, 2014; Curran and Hill,…”
BackgroundCommentary on Muris and Otgaar (2020): Let the Empirical Evidence Speak on the Self-Compassion Scale
Neff, K. D. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01411-9 · Cited by 91 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…but the exact phenomenon included in a cluster or factor can vary, sometimes quite considerably and in the clinical sciences be unreliable ways of identifying specific syndromes [see for example the controversies on one approach to self-compassion (Muris and Otgaar, 2020; Neff, 2020)].”
BackgroundWound treatment and selective help in a termite-hunting ant
Frank, E. T., Wehrhahn, M., & Linsenmair, K. E. (2018) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.2457 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Attachment in therapeutic practice
Osborne, S. (2018) · European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling · doi:10.1080/13642537.2018.1532947 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Contentment: Perceived Completeness across Cultures and Traditions
Cordaro, D. T., Brackett, M. A., Glass, L., & Anderson, C. L. (2016) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000082 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
The caring motivation : an integrated theory
Mayseless, O. (2016) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199913619.001.0001 · Cited by 79 · cited 5× · see citing works
“…infrastructures underpinning caring and compassion have been subjected to considerable research over the last 20 years (for reviews see Porges and Furman, 2011; Keltner et al., 2014; Brown and Brown, 2015, 2017; Mayseless, 2016; Gilbert, 2017a; Seppälä et al., 2017; Stevens and Woodruff, 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialExtended parenting and the evolution of cognition
Uomini, N., Fairlie, J., Gray, R. D., & Griesser, M. (2020) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2019.0495 · Cited by 77 · cited 2× · see citing works
“One is that it was social processes, and in particularly, caring processes that drove them and social intelligence (Dunbar, 2009, 2014; Spikins, 2015; Uomini et al., 2020).”
BackgroundGilbert, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.582090 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationLunkenheimer, E. S., Tiberio, S. S., Skoranski, A. M., Buss, K. A., & Cole, P. M. (2017) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.12985 · Cited by 75 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As a result of different types of repeated interactions such as physical closeness, feeding, thermoregulation, touch/comfort (Hofer, 1984, 1994) the mother is stimulating oxytocin-endorphin-parasympathetic circuits (Depue and MorroneStrupinsky, 2005; Lunkenheimer et al., 2018).”
BackgroundWeng, H. Y., Lapate, R. C., Stodola, D. E., Rogers, G. M., & Davidson, R. J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00771 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Ocklenburg, S. (2019) · Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1080/1357650x.2019.1638929 · Cited by 74 · cited 13× · see citing works
“In the context of a secure base and caring parent, the child experiences playful, joyful, exciting, and affectionate interactions (Schore, 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialEisenberg, N., VanSchyndel, S. K., & Hofer, C. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038137 · Cited by 73 · cited 2× · see citing works
“And when we learn forgiveness, we do not have to love the people we have forgiven; that is a fundamental misunderstanding (Enright and Fitzgibbons, 2015).”
BackgroundGilbert, P. (1995) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.5640020302 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationThe emergence of the compassion focused therapies
Kirby, J. N., & Gilbert, P. (2017) · Compassion · doi:10.4324/9781315564296-15 · Cited by 71 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…forms of general compassion training (e.g., Jazaieri et al., 2013; Singer and Engert, 2019; Condon and Makransky, 2020) and cultivating compassion to address personal problems like self-criticism (Neff and Germer, 2017) and mental health issues (Germer and Siegel, 2012; Kirby and Gilbert, 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWright, N., Hill, J., Sharp, H. M., & Pickles, A. R. (2018) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.12867 · Cited by 69 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Importantly, in childhood parental warmth and caring (especially distress sensitivity and positive regard) can offset callous traits (Wright et al., 2018).”
BackgroundOvermier, J. B. (2002) · Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/bf02688801 · Cited by 68 · cited 1× · see citing works
“For example, in most stress situations animals will first struggle to overcome a stressor but if that does not work then physiological systems automatically switch into a different response pattern which is often to go into helplessness or shutdown states (Overmier, 2002).”
BackgroundKumsta, R. (2019) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12227 · Cited by 63 · cited 4× · see citing works
“Indeed, it is now known that across many different species, the quality of parental caring impacts epigenetics and can attenuate or amplify vulnerabilities to threat sensitivity (Cowan et al., 2016; Kumsta, 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialHornstein, E., Fanselow, M., & Eisenberger, N. (2016) · Psychology Science · doi:10.1177/0956797616646580 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Depression: From psychology to brain state
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Giudice, M. D. (2015) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702615583628 · Cited by 60 · cited 1× · see citing works
“So, vital are these inputs to the infant and child, that failure to receive them, or worse experiences of threat and abuse in early life, reset strategic orientation at a phenotypic level (Cowan et al., 2016; Del Giudice, 2016; Kumsta, 2019; Slavich, 2020).”
BackgroundTwo forms of self‐criticism mediate differently the shame–psychopathological symptoms link
Castilho, P., Pinto‐Gouveia, J., & Duarte, J. (2016) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12094 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Gilbert, P., & Basran, J. K. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00610 · Cited by 60 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Given these individuals seek positions of power this is obviously a concern (Gilbert and Basran, 2019) especially FIGURE 7 | Outline of the competitive vs. caring social mentality as a therapy focus © Paul Gilbert.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSiegel, D. J. (2019) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12228 · Cited by 59 · cited 1× · see citing works
“And the future of psychotherapy is in the biopsychosocial Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 27 December 2020 | Volume 11 | Article 586161 sciences, rather than new versions of particular approaches (Cozolino, 2017; Gilbert, 2019; Schore, 2019; Siegel, 2019).”
BackgroundThe roles of altruism, heroism, and physical attractiveness in female mate choice
Margana, L., Bhogal, M. S., Bartlett, J. E., & Farrelly, D. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.08.018 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Vagal pathways: Portals to compassion.
Porges, S. W. (2017) · Cited by 57 · see citing works
The human model: Primate perspectives
Eysenck, H. J. (1980) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(80)90125-4 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Styles of Leadership, Fears of Compassion, and Competing to Avoid Inferiority
Basran, J., Pires, C., Matos, M., McEwan, K., & Gilbert, P. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02460 · Cited by 54 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Given these individuals seek positions of power this is obviously a concern (Gilbert and Basran, 2019) especially FIGURE 7 | Outline of the competitive vs. caring social mentality as a therapy focus © Paul Gilbert.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSustainable Compassion Training: Integrating Meditation Theory With Psychological Science
Condon, P., & Makransky, J. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02249 · Cited by 53 · cited 9× · see citing works
“However, it has only been in the last 30 years or so that we have seen substantial research on the neurophysiological, psychological, and social dimensions of compassion and compassion training (for reviews see Weng et al., 2013; Gilbert, 2017a; Seppälä et al., 2017; Stevens and Woodruff, 2018; Petrocchi and Cheli, 20…”
BackgroundInfluentialCompassion, fears, blocks and resistances: An evolutionary investigation.
Gilbert, P., & Mascaro, J. S. (2017) · University of Derby Online Research Archive. (University of Derby) · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationBell, T., Montague, J., Elander, J., & Gilbert, P. (2019) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12248 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationNeural and Evolutionary Perspectives on Empathy
Carter, C. S., Harri, J., & Porges, S. W. (2009) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262012973.003.0014 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Ebert, A., Edel, M., Gilbert, P., & Brüne, M. (2017) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22683 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationThe narcissism epidemic: Commentary on Modernity and narcissistic personality disorder.
Twenge, J. M., Miller, J. D., & Campbell, W. K. (2014) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/per0000008 · Cited by 43 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Consistent with this, studies of change in narcissism over the last 20 years come to similar conclusions (Twenge et al., 2014).”
ResultArmstrong, B. F., Nitschke, J. P., Bilash, U., & Zuroff, D. C. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109670 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Impact of a 12-Week Group-Based Compassion Focused Therapy Intervention on Heart Rate Variability
Steffen, P. R., Foxx, J., Cattani, K., Alldredge, C. T., Austin, T. A., & Burlingame, G. M. (2020) · Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback · doi:10.1007/s10484-020-09487-8 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
How mentalisation changes the mind
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“An increasing number of therapies recognize that empathy training of different kinds is necessary, both personally and as a therapist (Weiss and Zaki, 2017), with the mentalizing therapies being at the forefront of such in psychotherapy (Fonagy and Adshead, 2012; Luyten et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMcGilchrist, I. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780429435676 · Cited by 36 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Indeed, studies of people who have had their corpus callosumlesioned, because of epilepsy, have shown that these two parts of the brain can make quite different decisions (see also McGilchrist, 2018; Schore, 2019).”
BackgroundThe Cambridge Handbook of Evolutionary Perspectives on Human Behavior
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108131797 · Cited by 36 · cited 9× · see citing works
“However, it has only been in the last 30 years or so that we have seen substantial research on the neurophysiological, psychological, and social dimensions of compassion and compassion training (for reviews see Weng et al., 2013; Gilbert, 2017a; Seppälä et al., 2017; Stevens and Woodruff, 2018; Petrocchi and Cheli, 20…”
BackgroundInfluentialWhy Care: Complex Evolutionary History of Human Healthcare Networks
Kessler, S. E. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00199 · Cited by 35 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Kessler (2020) explores the evolution of what she calls “health-care,” caring for sick individuals, and highlights that many species care for their sick and injured.”
BackgroundEmpathic responses are reduced to competitive but not non-competitive outgroups
Richins, M. T., Barreto, M., Karl, A., & Lawrence, N. (2018) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2018.1463927 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
A Social Safety Net: Developing a Model of Social-Support Figures as Prepared Safety Stimuli
Hornstein, E., & Eisenberger, N. (2018) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721417729036 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Fox, J., Cattani, K., & Burlingame, G. M. (2020) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2020.1783708 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Zuroff, D. C., Clegg, K., Levine, S. L., Hermanto, N., Armstrong, B. F., Haward, B., & Thode, S. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110429 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Looming cognitive vulnerability to anxiety and its reduction in psychotherapy.
Riskind, J. H., Rector, N. A., & Taylor, S. J. (2012) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/a0028011 · Cited by 31 · cited 1× · see citing works
“CFT and other therapies try to help people shift out of inappropriate vigilant and safety seeking motives, by developing confidence to appropriately assess threat, and the courage to tolerate and manage threat (Rachman, 1990; Riskind et al., 2012).”
BackgroundThe evolutionary roots of prosociality: the case of instrumental helping
Melis, A. P. (2017) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.08.019 · Cited by 29 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Derived from an exploration of the evolution of caring behavior (Gilbert, 1989/2016, 2005a, 2009a; Goetz et al., 2010; Keltner et al., 2014; Cassidy and Shaver, 2016; Mayseless, 2016; Melis, 2018) consistent with the Mahayana Buddhist tradition (Dalai Lama, 1995), compassion can therefore be defined as a basic algorit…”
BackgroundAttachment styles modulate neural markers of threat and imagery when engaging in self-criticism
Kim, J. J., Kent, K. M., Cunnington, R., Gilbert, P., & Kirby, J. N. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-70772-x · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationThe cost of helping: An exploration of compassionate responding in children
Green, M., Kirby, J. N., & Nielsen, M. (2018) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjdp.12252 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Fiskum, C. (2019) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/int0000174 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The Neuroscience of Empathy, Compassion, and Self-Compassion
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Depression: The evolution of powerlessness
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da Silva, D. R., Rijo, D., Salekin, R. T., Paulo, M., Miguel, R. R., & Gilbert, P. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-020-09418-x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationSpikins, P. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315564296-2 · Cited by 23 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This is true for caring (Spikins, 2015, 2017; Uomini et al., 2020).”
BackgroundLampert, K. (2005) · Palgrave Macmillan UK eBooks · doi:10.1057/9780230503755 · Cited by 23 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…evolution, caring, biopsychosocial INTRODUCTION AND EVOLUTIONARY OVERVIEW Background There is a long history of philosophical and spiritual writings, highlighting the value of compassion as an antidote to suffering and anti-social behavior (Dalai Lama, 1995; Lampert, 2005; Ricard, 2015).”
BackgroundCompassion in the autonomic nervous system
Stellar, J. E., & Keltner, D. J. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315564296-7 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Bratt, A. S., Gralberg, I.-M., Svensson, I., & Rusner, M. (2020) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1359104520931583 · Cited by 20 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Throughout, this paper has highlighted that engaging with mental suffering and distress will require building courage (Bratt et al., 2020), Hence, the cultivation of courage to help work with suffering, FIGURE 8 | Fears of compassion and attachment history.”
BackgroundBrasini, M., Tanzilli, A., Pistella, J., Gentile, D., Marco, I. D., Mancini, F., Lingiardi, V., & Baiocco, R. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110236 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Evolutionary Perspectives on Emotion: Making Sense of What We Feel
Greenberg, L. S. (2002) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/jcop.16.3.331.52517 · Cited by 20 · cited 1× · see citing works
“One of the major reasons people come to therapy is because of what they feel, that is problems with their emotions and their moods (Greenberg, 2003).”
BackgroundCompassionate Neurobiology and Health
Brown, S. L., & Brown, R. M. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190464684.013.13 · Cited by 19 · cited 5× · see citing works
“…have drawn attention to adaptations to the central and autonomic nervous systems that facilitated the co-evolution of care providing and care-seeking forms of relating (Gilbert, 1989/2016, 2005a; Porges, 2007, 2017; Thayer et al., 2012; Brown and Brown, 2015, 2017; Carter et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialDeveloping a compassion-focused approach in cognitive behavioural therapy
Gilbert, P. (2008) · doi:10.4324/9780203884683-18 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationTwo key features created the human mind: Inside our heads.
Suddendorf, T. (2018) · Scientific American · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Baumeister, R. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2007) · Encyclopedia of Social Psychology · doi:10.4135/9781412956253.n295 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Evolution, child raising, and compassionate morality
Narvaez, D. F. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315564296-10 · Cited by 15 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As we grow, our secure base extends to networks of peers and other individuals (Hrdy, 2009; Narvaez, 2017, 2020).”
BackgroundPhysiological fractals: visual and statistical evidence across timescales and experimental states
Kim, J. J., Parker, S. L., Henderson, T., & Kirby, J. N. (2020) · Journal of The Royal Society Interface · doi:10.1098/rsif.2020.0334 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Octopus intelligence: The importance of being agnostic
Amodio, P. (2019) · Animal Sentience · doi:10.51291/2377-7478.1507 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Compassion: Definitions and controversies
Gilbert, P. (2017) · University of Derby Online Research Archive. (University of Derby) · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationCognitive Behaviour Therapy: A Guide for the Practicing Clinician
Kazantzis, N. (2009) · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Ecocentrism: Resetting Baselines for Virtue Development
Narvaez, D. F. (2020) · Ethical Theory and Moral Practice · doi:10.1007/s10677-020-10091-2 · Cited by 13 · cited 1× · see citing works
“As we grow, our secure base extends to networks of peers and other individuals (Hrdy, 2009; Narvaez, 2017, 2020).”
BackgroundCompassion as a social mentality: An evolutionary approach
Gilbert, P. (2017) · University of Derby Online Research Archive. (University of Derby) · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationBell, T., Montague, J., Elander, J., & Gilbert, P. (2020) · Journal of Psychotherapy Integration · doi:10.1037/int0000240 · Cited by 12 · cited 3× · see citing works
“Commonly too clients can be invited to literally step in and become that emotion, like an actor stepping into a role, become it, and in so doing clients sometimes have different insights (Bell et al., 2020a,b).”
BackgroundSelf-citationWays of Attending : How our Divided Brain Constructs the World
McGilchrist, I. (2018) · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Defense, safe(ty) and biosocial goals in relation to the agonic and hedonic social modes
Gilbert, P. (1992) · World Futures · doi:10.1080/02604027.1992.9972316 · Cited by 9 · cited 1× · see citing works
“This paper explores compassion focused therapy (CFT) rooted in an evolution informed, biopsychosocial approach to mental health problems and psychotherapy (Gilbert, 1984, 1992a,b, 1995, 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citationImagining one's compassionate self and coping with life difficulties
Gilbert, P., & Basran, J. K. (2018) · University of Derby Online Research Archive. (University of Derby) · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationNurturing children: from trauma to growth using attachment theory, psychoanalysis and neurobiology
Brown, G. (2019) · Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/02668734.2019.1707267 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The Problem of Altruism and Future Directions
Colquhoun, L., Workman, L., & Fowler, J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108131797.011 · Cited by 7 · cited 3× · see citing works
“…of altruism is typically seen to be driven by two processes: (1) kin-based, where caring behavior has a payoff for one’s genetic representation in the next generation and (2) reciprocal, where helping behavior will result in being helped in the future (Buss, 2015; Colqhoun et al., 2020).”
BackgroundMiller, J. G., Kahle, S. S., Troxel, N. R., & Hastings, P. D. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.590384 · Cited by 7 · cited 1× · see citing works
“” Helping people that does not have a cost or can actually benefit oneself in the long term is questionable as to how altruistic-compassionate it is (Colqhoun et al., 2020; Miller et al., 2020).”
BackgroundAttachment Styles: Fear of Compassion and Callous-Unemotional Traits among Juvenile Delinquents
Akmal, K. M., & Foong, A. L. S. (2018) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Behaviour · doi:10.4172/2375-4494.1000371 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
How Can Social Mentality Theory Help Us Understand Eating Disorder Presentations? A Scoping Review
Mullen, G., & O’Reilly, G. (2018) · Journal of Relationships Research · doi:10.1017/jrr.2018.17 · Cited by 4 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Hence, social mentalities are role focused, recruit different algorithms, physiological systems and cognitive competencies to engage in different interpersonal dances in the co-creation of different roles (Gilbert, 1989/2016, 2005b, 2017c, 2020a; Hermanto et al., 2017; Mullen and O’Reilly, 2018; Brasini et al., 2020).”
BackgroundHow One Experiences and Embodies Compassionate Mind Training Influences Its Effectiveness
Matos, M., Duarte, J., Duarte, C., Gilbert, P., & Pinto-Gouveia, J. (2017) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0864-1
Self-citationEvolved minds and compassion in the therapeutic relationship
Gilbert, P. (2007) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203099995-7
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
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- Dunbar R. (2014). Human evolution: A pelican introduction. UK: Penguin.
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- Gilbert P. (2005a). “ Compassion and cruelty. A biopsychosocial approach” in Compassion: Conceptualizations, research and use in psychotherapy. ed. Gilbert P. (London: Routledge), 11– 74.
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Emotion regulation and the salience network: a hypothetical integrative model of fibromyalgia
Pinto, A. M., Geenen, R., Wager, T. D., Lumley, M. A., Häuser, W., Kosek, E., Ablin, J. N., Amris, K., Branco, J., Buskila, D., et al. (2022) · Nature Reviews Rheumatology · doi:10.1038/s41584-022-00873-6 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Evolutionary psychiatry: foundations, progress and challenges
Nesse, R. M. (2023) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21072 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Gilbert, P. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.582090 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Self-citationMatos, M., Albuquerque, I., Galhardo, A. B., Cunha, M. I. V. A., de Lima, M. P., Palmeira, L., Petrocchi, N., McEwan, K., Maratos, F. A., & Gilbert, P. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0263480 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“The second is the commitment to alleviate and prevent suffering and requires a particular set of affiliative skills in the sphere of attention, emotion, cognition and behaviour conducive to the development of a compassionate mind [58, 61].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationThe role of social connection on the experience of COVID-19 related post-traumatic growth and stress
Matos, M., McEwan, K., Kanovský, M., Halamová, J., Steindl, S. R., Ferreira, N., Linharelhos, M., Rijo, D., Asano, K., Vilas, S. P., et al. (2021) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261384 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“appropriate physical distancing and other precautions but where the psychological focus was on both how to create ‘safeness’ and the importance of ‘relating’ rather than distancing [56, 136].”
BackgroundSelf-citationMatos, M., McEwan, K., Kanovský, M., Halamová, J., Steindl, S. R., Ferreira, N., Linharelhos, M., Rijo, D., Asano, K., Márquez, M. G., et al. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01822-2 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“…having access to caring relationships and receiving compassion from others in regulating affective processes, physiological states and producing greater wellbeing and a sense of feeling connected to others and socially safe in the world (Brown & Brown, 2017; Cacioppo et al., 2008; Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationPinto, A. M., Luís, M., Geenen, R., Palavra, F., Lumley, M. A., Ablin, J. N., Amris, K., Branco, J., Buskila, D., Castelhano, J., et al. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105235 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Gilbert, P. (2024) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12466 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationMatos, M., McEwan, K., Kanovský, M., Halamová, J., Steindl, S., Ferreira, N., Linharelhos, M., Rijo, D., Asano, K., Gregório, S., et al. (2021) · Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2601 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Our findings are thus consistent with the notion that, from birth and throughout life, caring social relationships operate as key regulators of physiological and affective processes, engendering a sense of feeling socially safe in the world and producing greater wellbeing (Cacioppo et al., 2000; Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationSteindl, S. R., Bell, T., Dixon, A., & Kirby, J. N. (2022) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12530 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Di Bello, M., Ottaviani, C., & Petrocchi, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2021.617443 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Thereby, the individual is able to learn that negative information does not always translate into an aversive outcome (Borkovec et al., 2004), when the compassionate motivation is active (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPoli, A., Cappellini, F., Sala, J., & Miccoli, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1164527 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Regarding the therapeutic process, compassion is increasingly observed as central to promote safety and self-soothing strategies (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundOthman, S. Y., Hassan, N. I., & Mohamed, A. M. (2023) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-023-01466-8 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Being compassionate means being aware of own and other people’s suffering and having the urge or motivation to end it [31].”
BackgroundNo safety without emotional safety
Veale, D. M., Robins, E., Thomson, A. B., & Gilbert, P. (2022) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(22)00373-x · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationMatos, M., Duarte, C., Duarte, J., Pinto-Gouveia, J., Petrocchi, N., & Gilbert, P. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01717-2
“In light of the CFT framework, CMT techniques aim to help facilitate our evolved caring motivation and our affiliative systems that help regulate distress (Gilbert, 2010, 2019, 2020).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationMatos, M., Palmeira, L., Albuquerque, I., Cunha, M. I. V. A., de Lima, M. P., Galhardo, A. B., Maratos, F. A., & Gilbert, P. (2021) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01778-3 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“, 2017)), which contribute to well-being, stress management, and emotion regulation (Carter et al., 2017; Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationFear leads to suffering: Fears of compassion predict restriction of the moral boundary
Crimston, C. R., Blessing, S., Gilbert, P., & Kirby, J. N. (2021) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12483 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationThe experience of loneliness: The role of fears of compassion and social safeness
Best, T., Herring, L., Clarke, C., Kirby, J. N., & Gilbert, P. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111161 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citationNeural correlates of compassion - An integrative systematic review.
Novak, L., Malinakova, K., Mikoska, P., van Dijk, J. P., & Tavel, P. (2022) · PubMed · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.12.004 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
From Oxytocin to Compassion: The Saliency of Distress
Kucerova, B., Levit‐Binnun, N., Gordon, I., & Golland, Y. (2023) · Biology · doi:10.3390/biology12020183 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“Finally, elucidating attentional processes in compassion can inform clinical interventions [7] and shed additional light on how attention-focused mental practices, such as mindfulness, can boost caring and compassion [141].”
Psilocybin-Assisted Compassion Focused Therapy for Depression
Pots, W. T. M., & Chakhssi, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.812930 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“This is important because part of the reason that compassion can be helpful is that it is activating particular physiological systems linked to caring, social connections, and feeling cared for Gilbert (2020), Holze et al. (2021), and Steffen et al. (2021).”
BackgroundBeaumont, E., Bell, T., McAndrew, S., & Fairhurst, H. (2021) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12396 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Thinking– feeling loops are associated with reactions from the ‘old’ and ‘new’ brain (Gilbert, 2010, 2020).”
BackgroundCreativity and innovation: The role of team and organizational climate
West, M. A., & Sacramento, C. A. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-91840-4.00024-4 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The pattern theory of compassion
Gallagher, S., Raffone, A., & Aglioti, S. M. (2024) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2024.04.005 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
A randomized controlled feasibility trial of online compassion‐focused self‐help for psoriasis*
Muftin, Z., Gilbert, P., & Thompson, A. R. (2022) · British Journal of Dermatology · doi:10.1111/bjd.21020 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Gilbert 34 has reflected that mindfulness allows for the ability to reflect on one’s mental states and cultivate a calm mind.”
Self-citationCheli, S., Chiarello, F., & Cavalletti, V. (2022) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-022-09566-3 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Thus, the soothing system, a mammalian effect regulation system, normally triggered by cues of social safeness status, is poorly accessible in persons whose threat system is hyperactivated by shame and self-criticism (Gilbert, 2014; 2020).”
BackgroundCheli, S., Cavalletti, V., Lysaker, P. H., Dimaggio, G., Petrocchi, N., Chiarello, F., Enzo, C., Velicogna, F., Mancini, F., & Goldzweig, G. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04610-5 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Therefore, it has been hypothesized that an integrative form of psychotherapy consisting of a metacognitively oriented intervention and Compassion Focused Therapy [30] (CFT) would be beneficial for those diagnosed with SPD.”
BackgroundInfluentialCarter, A., Hoang, A., Gilbert, P., & Kirby, J. N. (2021) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053211027641 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Social mentality theory (Gilbert, 1989) is based on an evolutionary model that suggests the way cognition, affect and behaviours are patterned will be determined by the contextual social roles the individual is engaging in (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationMatos, M., Petrocchi, N., Irons, C., & Steindl, S. R. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23474 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Compassion and Self-Compassion: Counterfactors of Burnout in Medical Students and Physicians
Román-Calderón, J. P., Krikorian, A., González, E. P. R., Romero, A. M. R., & Lemos, M. (2022) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941221132995 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Substantial research on the neurophysiological, psychological, and social dimensions of compassion and compassion training has been conducted in the last 3 decades, highlighting its value to counteract suffering and anti-social behavior (Gilbert, 2020; Gilbert et al., 2017).”
BackgroundCowand, A., Amarsaikhan, U., Ricks, R. F., Cash, E. D., & Sephton, S. E. (2024) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-024-02383-w · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“A plausible explanation is that practicing self-compassion allows individuals to experience acceptance, kindness, and warmth, which promotes a self-soothing effect and a calmer physiological state (Gilbert, 2020).”
Kirby, J. N., Hoang, A., & Ramos, N. (2023) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12459 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Compassion as a transdiagnostic target to reduce mental health symptoms and promote well-being
Kirby, J. N. (2025) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-025-00422-4 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…research indicates that a balance or harmonious relationship between self-compassion and compassion towards others leads to optimal well-being, whereas self-compassion and compassion towards others are not associated with well-being if the relationship between these variables is unbalanced 12,177 .”
InfluentialBarcaccia, B., Hartstone, J. M., Pallini, S., Petrocchi, N., Saliani, A. M., & Medvedev, O. N. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-021-01824-0 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…given that evolutionary approaches to mental health, such as “compassion-focussed therapy”, show how the sense of interpersonal safeness “has major effects on biological patterns, social behaviours, relationships and the maturation of self-constructs” (Gilbert, 1993, p. 131; 1 3 Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundLiu, J., Li, J.-T., Zhou, M., Liu, H., Fan, Y., Mi, S., & Tang, Y. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1214192 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“Compassion-focused approaches (68) may be especially suitable for addressing fears of compassion and increasing distress tolerance in adolescents with NSSI (22).”
BackgroundSzitás, D., Halamová, J., Ottingerová, L., & Schroevers, M. J. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2024.102372 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Maynard, P. G., van Kessel, K., & Feather, J. S. (2023) · Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12435 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Alfonsson, S., Winai, E., Collin, E., Isaksson, M., & Wolf‐Arehult, M. (2023) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2830 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
HRV patterns associated with different affect regulation systems: Sex differences in adolescents
Sousa, R., Petrocchi, N., Gilbert, P., & Rijo, D. (2021) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.10.009 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationThe power of feeling seen: perspectives of individuals with eating disorders on receiving validation
Geller, J., Fernandes, A., Srikameswaran, S., Pullmer, R., & Marshall, S. K. (2021) · Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1186/s40337-021-00500-x · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Finally, receiving validation over time has been linked to secure attachment, and to the development of self-compassion [5, 7], the latter of which has been shown to play a positive role in recovery from several physical and mental health conditions, including eating disorders (EDs).”
BackgroundBennett, V., Gill, C., Miller, P., Lewis, P., NeurOX, Y. P. A. G., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C. E., & Lavi, I. (2022) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13621 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Grounded in evolutionary and biopsychosocial mechanisms, compassion‐focused approaches are rapidly becoming integral to therapeutic approaches to alleviate symptoms associated with trauma, self‐criticism and shame.(49) Such engagement observed on the message boards is akin to two of the three flows of compassion: offe…”
BackgroundMultiple emotions, multiple selves: compassion focused therapy chairwork
Bell, T., Montague, J., Elander, J., & Gilbert, P. (2021) · The Cognitive Behaviour Therapist · doi:10.1017/s1754470x21000180 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“This parallels the way in which CFT utilizes the presence of fears, blocks and resistances to compassion during compassionate mind training, viewing them as a form of ‘intuitive wisdom’ that reveal key areas of personal threat and need (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationPosition paper – CFT for psychosis
Heriot-Maitland, C. (2023) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12490 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“In CFT, Gilbert refers to social mentalities as evolved algorithms, which he describes as simple stimulus– response profiles of “if A then do B” Gilbert (2020, p 3).”
Westlake, D., Wong, G., Markham, S., Turk, A., Gorenberg, J., Pope, C. J., Reeve, J. L., Mitchell, C. A., Husk, K., Redwood, S., et al. (2024) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1155/2024/2479543 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Gilbert, P., Basran, J. K., Raven, J., Gilbert, H., Petrocchi, N., Cheli, S., Rayner, A., Hayes, A., Lucre, K., Minou, P., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.841932 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“commitment to try to alleviate and prevent it (Gilbert, 2020a).”
BackgroundSelf-citationNorthover, C., Deacon, J., King, J. A., & Irons, C. (2021) · OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.21926/obm.icm.2104056 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Psychological suffering is thought to occur when these systems become unbalanced [9, 16, 17].”
BackgroundNurturing self-compassionate performers
Walton, C. C., Osborne, M. S., Gilbert, P., & Kirby, J. N. (2022) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050067.2022.2033952 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“kindness meditations, compassionate writing, and evolutionarily-informed psychoeducation (Gilbert, 2020; Kirby, 2017).”
BackgroundSelf-citationCompassion Focused Therapy – What It Is, What It Targets, and the Evidence
Kirby, J. N., & Petrocchi, N. (2023) · Mindfulness in behavioral health · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-22348-8_23 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Efficacy of a Single Session Mindfulness-based Art Therapy Doodle Intervention
Isis, P. D., Bokoch, R. N., Fowler, G., & Hass‐Cohen, N. (2023) · Art Therapy · doi:10.1080/07421656.2023.2192168 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“COAT combines the principles of Gilbert ’ s compassion-focused psychotherapy (2020) and art therapy to mitigate shame and develop acceptance.”
MethodSousa, R., Petrocchi, N., Gilbert, P., & Rijo, D. (2022) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2022.101970 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationCheli, S. (2022) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100993 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Bello, M. D., Giudetti, F., Palani, S., Petrocchi, N., McIntosh, R. C., & Ottaviani, C. (2022) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2022.100362 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“According to the evolutionary framework of caring motives, the rAI might be at the core of the care-based algorithm that characterizes compassion: "if there is a signal of distress, then engage in trying to alleviate it" (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundResultEmpathy and Compassion as the Radical Behaviorist Views it: A Conceptual Analysis
Melton, B., O’Connell-Sussman, E., Lord, J., & Weiss, M. J. (2023) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-023-00783-3 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Steinvik, H. R., Duffy, A. L., & Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J. (2023) · International Journal of Bullying Prevention · doi:10.1007/s42380-023-00164-y · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Consistent with recent research and conceptualizations, compassion is characterized by distress tolerance and other-oriented concern for all people, believed to facilitate prosocial action to help suffering other (for reviews see Gilbert, 2020; Klimecki, 2019; Stevens & Taber, 2021).”
Compassion focused therapy for self-stigma and shame in autism: a single case pre-experimental study
Riebel, M., Krasny‐Pacini, A., Manolov, R., Rohmer, O., & Weiner, L. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1281428 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“For a more comprehensive understanding of the evolution-informed psychoeducation in CFT, see Gilbert (62) for a review.”
BackgroundThe compassion connection: Experience sampling insights into romantic attraction
Ciarrochi, J., Sahdra, B. K., Fraser, M. I., Hayes, S. C., Yap, K., & Gloster, A. T. (2024) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100749 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Compassion involves an attentiveness to suffering, combined with a desire to alleviate it (Gilbert, 2020).”
One Compassion, Many Means: A Big Two Analysis of Compassionate Behavior
Quaglia, J. T. (2022) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-022-01895-7 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…of compassion such as (1) acknowledging the presence of suffering; (2) feeling empathic concern for the one suffering; and (3) embodying an intentional readiness to alleviate suffering if possible (Gilbert 2015, 2020; Goetz et al. 2010; Jazaieri et al. 2013; Kanov et al. 2004; Strauss et al. 2016).”
BackgroundMatos, M., McEwan, K., Kanovský, M., Halamová, J., Steindl, S. R., Ferreira, N. B., Linharelhos, M., Rijo, D., Asano, K., Vilas, S. P., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20031845 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Compassion emerged from the mammalian care-giving system algorithm for caring, where, if a stimulus indicates distress or need, then this activates behaviours to alleviate them [67].”
BackgroundSelf-citationCurrent trends and challenges in EEG research on meditation and mindfulness
Barrows, P. D., Gordon, W. V., & Gilbert, P. (2024) · Discover Psychology · doi:10.1007/s44202-024-00269-5 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“…feature of meditation across a wide range of traditional spiritual practices [79], it is only relatively recently that such techniques have been widely incorporated into secular, therapeutic interventions to address mental health problems and promote physical health and wellbeing [21, 80].”
Self-citationArı, E., Soysal, G. C., Basran, J. K., & Gilbert, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.780077 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“According to this evolution based definition, compassion presents a multiple flow perspective (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBodini, L., Bonetto, C., Cheli, S., Piccolo, L. D., Rimondini, M., Rossi, A., Carta, A., Porru, S., Amaddeo, F., & Lasalvia, A. (2022) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-022-06666-2 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Compassion can be defined as the awareness of one’s own and others’ suffering and the intention or motivation to alleviate it [24].”
BackgroundMuris, P., Bongers, K., Schenning, C., Meesters, C. M. G., & Otgaar, H. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9121930 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“During the past decades, evidence has accumulated showing that people with high levels of self-compassion have a better mental health than individuals with low levels of self-compassion [3] and there is also support for the positive effects of self-compassion-enhancing treatments in patients who suffer from various ps…”
BackgroundWang, J., Drossaert, C. H. C., Knevel, M., Chen, L., Bohlmeijer, E. T., & Schroevers, M. J. (2025) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.70090 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Self‐compassion encompasses elements of mind-fulness, as the first step in being compassionate is to be aware and acknowledge suffering, with an open, nonjudging attitude and non‐reactivity (Gilbert 2020; Neff 2003a; Strauss et al. 2016).”
Zhang, S., Pringle, A., & Roscoe, C. M. P. (2024) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12757 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Brown, N. D., & Ashcroft, K. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15081031 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Group or individual CFT derived from Paul Gilbert (2009, 2014, 2020), including psychoeducation (for example, the tricky brain, three regulatory systems, fear of compassion, and the role of shame and self-criticism) and exercises (for example, soothing rhythm breathing, mindful attention, and…”
InfluentialMatos, M., Galhardo, A. B., Palmeira, L., Albuquerque, I., Cunha, M. I. V. A., de Lima, M. P., Maratos, F. A., & Gilbert, P. (2024) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-024-02360-3 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“In line with the CFT theoretical framework (Gilbert, 2010, 2014, 2020), these findings highlight that to cultivate and embody a compassionate self/mind, reduce psychological distress and burnout, and promote wellbeing in educational settings it is crucial to simultaneously promote teachers’…”
InfluentialSelf-citationA case report of compassion‐focused therapy for distressing voice‐hearing experiences
Heriot-Maitland, C., & Levey, V. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23211 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Taylor, J. C. (2021) · Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1108/amhid-01-2021-0004 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Yu, H., Chen, J., Dardaine, B., & Yang, F. (2023) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105476 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Compassion for others and well-being: a meta-analysis
Zhuniq, M., Winter, F., & Aguilar‐Raab, C. (2025) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-025-23460-7 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The flows of compassion in adolescents as measured by the compassionate engagement and action scales
Cunha, M. I. V. A., Galhardo, A. B., Gilbert, P., Rodrigues, C., & Matos, M. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02097-5 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The inter-relationship between the three flows of compassion, as measured by the CEAS-A scales, is considered a key aspect of the CFT/CMT approach (Gilbert et al., 2017; Gilbert, 2020), as they are highly interactive but can also be independent (Lopez et al.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationEpidemiology of compassion: A literature review
Addiss, D. G., Richards, A., Adiabu, S., Horwath, E., Leruth, S., Graham, A. L., & Buesseler, H. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.992705 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Addressing attachment avoidance is a central component of compassion-focused psychotherapy (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundInfluentialSousa, R., da Silva, D. R., Petrocchi, N., Gilbert, P., & Rijo, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1032011 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, CFT focuses on enhancing competencies and brain systems that play a major role in regulating threatening emotions, promoting wellbeing and prosocial behavior (18) and has been shown to increase the ability to experience and resist to negative psychological states (39).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationKirby, J. N., Sherwell, C. S., Lynn, S., & Moloney-Gibb, D. (2023) · Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools · doi:10.1017/jgc.2023.5 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Among many compassion scholars, mindfulness is a considered an important competency or skill, but it should be paired with a motivation, namely a caring and compassionate motivation (Gilbert, 2020; Ricard, 2015).”
BackgroundGarrett, C., Smith, D. M., & Wittkowski, A. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1400962 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The soothing system is responsible for our propensity as human beings to care and protect, to connect with and soothe one another; tendencies that have also been key to our survival as a species (2, 15).”
InfluentialBennett–Levy, J., Roxburgh, N., Hibner, L., Bala, S., Edwards, S., Lucre, K., Cohen, G., O’Connor, D., Keogh, S., & Gilbert, P. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.568561 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Central to CFT formulation is recognition of the negative impacts of past and present social determinants in the way that we relate to ourselves, with shame and self-criticism often arising as unintended consequences of vulnerability (Gilbert, 2017, 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSantos, L., Pinheiro, M. D. R., & Rijo, D. (2023) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-023-09749-6 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Compassion can be defined as a motivation to be responsive to one´s own and others suffering and to act in order to alleviate or prevent it (Gilbert, 2020).”
Rawlings, G. H., Wright, K. P., Rolling, K., & Beail, N. (2021) · Advances in Mental Health and Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1108/amhid-12-2020-0035 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Hardman, J. R., Gleeson, J., González‐Blanch, C., Álvarez‐Jiménez, M., Fraser, M. I., & Yap, K. (2023) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2881 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Social rank theory (Gilbert, 1992, 2000, 2020) offers an evolutionary-based framework to understand the link between insight and depression in the post-acute phase.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMa, J., & Xiao, Q. (2024) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941241226906 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Similarly, nearly 30 years of research on compassion has revealed that it has signi fi cant positive physical and psychological effects on health, as well as promoting prosociality (Gilbert, 2020).”
Lucre, K., Ashworth, F., Copello, A. G., Jones, C. A., & Gilbert, P. (2024) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12518 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationA neuroscience perspective on the plasticity of the social and relational brain
Singer, T. (2025) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15319 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Cross, S. P. M., Mangelsdorf, S. N., Valentine, L., O’Sullivan, S., McEnery, C., Scott, I., Gilbertson, T., Louis, S., Myer, J., Liu, P., et al. (2025) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2025.100849 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“While they can mimic empathy (Ayers et al., 2023), their capacity for compassion (Gilbert, 2020), alliance repair, or context-sensitive intervention is limited (Morrow et al., 2023).”
Compassion in Healthcare: A Narrative Review of Cross-Cultural Perspectives
Poudel, D. B., Aledeh, M., Parveen, N., Ishfaq, M., Golbourn, L.-M., Ali, Y., Lazzari, C. G., & Kotera, Y. (2025) · Journal of Healthcare Leadership · doi:10.2147/jhl.s555896 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Perfectionism and community-identity integration: the mediating role of shame, guilt and self-esteem
Piotrowski, K., Bojanowska, A., Nowicka, A., & Janasek, B. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01499-9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…perfectionistic strivings (one of the key elements of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy; Hayes et al., 2012) or to identify the mechanisms of influence of maladaptive motives on mental health via such emotions as shame and anxiety which is a core theme in Compassion Focused Therapy (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundSantos, L., Pinheiro, M. D. R., & Rijo, D. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106122 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Luo, X., Shen, Y., Sun, L., Qi, X., Hong, J., Wang, Y., Che, X., & Lei, Y. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.05.117 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Brophy, K., Emery, M., MacDonald, C., Côté, C. I., & Körner, A. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0305776 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Gilbert [123] distinguishes between a stimulus-response algorithm that identifies distinct skills and competencies in two different stages (engagement and action), versus a clus-ter-diagnostic approach which identifies core processes that are commonly understood as related but may vary in how they…”
BackgroundClark, S. L., Julien‐Chinn, F. J., Jones, A., Jen, S., Dowdy-Hazlett, T., & Hunt, M. K. (2023) · Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work · doi:10.1080/26408066.2023.2232799 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Waird, A. (2023) · Australian journal of advanced nursing · doi:10.37464/2023.404.1073 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Seabra, D., Carvalho, S. A., Gato, J., Petrocchi, N., & Salvador, M. D. C. (2024) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2024.2333777 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“…self-criticism is linked to evolutionary motives operated through a threat-focused system responsible for detecting possible danger, and ensuring defensive actions (Gilbert, 2019, 2022a), with the ultimate survival goal of avoiding harm, injury, and loss of social status (Gilbert, 2020, 2022c).”
Tendhar, T., Marcotte, M. A., de Mesquita, P. B., & Saikia, M. J. (2024) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12101033 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Compassion education is one of the approaches that can address the root causes of personal and societal issues that impact people’s psychological and physiological well-being [8–10].”
BackgroundWalton, C. C., Kirby, J. N., McKenzie, S., Gao, C. X., Purcell, R., Rice, S., & Osborne, M. S. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1512114 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…mechanisms is beyond the scope here, SC works by reducing the psychological and physiological harms of threat-based cognition and emotion by instead developing soothing responses to distress which allow space for compassionate and growth-focused motivation (Kirby, 2025; Neff, 2023; Gilbert, 2020).”
Learning Compassion and Meditation: A Mixed-Methods Analysis of the Experience of Novice Meditators
Mascaro, J. S., Florian, M. P., Ash, M. J., Palmer, P. K., Sharma, A., Kaplan, D. M., Palitsky, R., Grant, G. H., & Raison, C. L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.805718 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“For over 30 years, scientific inquiry into compassion and its potential psychological and physiological impacts has gained momentum and sophistication (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundAmari, N., Martin, T., Mahoney, A., Peacock, S., Stewart, J., & Alford, E. A. (2022) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-022-09573-4 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Specifically, the threat system detects dangers and activate survival mechanisms, the drive system seeks rewarding stimuli and the soothing system has been linked to mammalian caregiving strategies (Gilbert, 2020).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCompassion Focused Therapy and Heart Rate Variability
Sherwell, C. S., & Kirby, J. N. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198888727.003.0018 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Liu, P., Liu, J., Li, Y., & Lu, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1408396 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Furthermore, implementing intervention studies with longitudinal follow-up could investigate whether interventions that increase self-compassion, such as MSC, CFT, or traditional loving-kindness meditation, would facilitate NSSI recovery.”
BackgroundBeaumont, E., Dagnall, N., Massey, S. A., & Irons, C. (2024) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12841 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Li, X., Malli, M., Cosco, T. D., & Zhou, G.-Y. (2024) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/60154 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Second, as suggested in Gilbert’s [29] model, self-compassion may mitigate stress-related reactions, and promote adaptive coping strategies [20,29].”
InfluentialWillems, R., Drossaert, C. H. C., ten Klooster, P. M., Miedema, H. S., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18189651 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Gilbert (2020) discusses that compassion towards oneself and towards others are related but different concepts.”
Background
- Authors
- Gilbert, P.
- Affiliations
- University of Derby (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Gilbert, Paul
- ORCID
- Gilbert, Paul
- Venue
- Frontiers in Psychology
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2020-12-09
- Volume
- 11
- Pages
- 586161-586161
- ISSN
- 1664-1078 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7762265
- OpenAlex
- W3111594781
- Cited by
- 365
- References
- 187
- Citations by year
- 2026: 62 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 63 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 2.91
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Frontiers in Psychology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Derby Online Research Archive. (University of Derby) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
- Social Sciences › Health › Religion, Spirituality, and Psychology
- Keywords
- compassion, compassion-focused therapy, caring behavior, attachment behavior, secure base, safe haven, biopsychosocial model, prosocial behavior, psychological suffering, well-being, contemplative traditions
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