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Peer-to-Peer Markets
Open accessAbstract
Peer-to-peer markets such as eBay, Uber, and Airbnb allow small suppliers to compete with traditional providers of goods or services. We view the primary function of these markets as making it easy for buyers to find sellers and engage in convenient, trustworthy transactions. We discuss elements of market design that make this possible, including search and matching algorithms, pricing, and reputation systems. We then develop a simple model of how these markets enable entry by small or flexible suppliers, and how they impact existing firms. Finally, we consider the regulation of peer-to-peer markets and the economic arguments for different approaches to licensing and certification, data, and employment regulation.
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“First, online gig platforms exhibit enhanced efficiency compared to traditional housekeeping businesses in facilitating key functions, such as matching and supervision processes (e.g., Cramer andKrueger 2016, Einav et al. 2016).”
From Skill-Biased Technical Change, Again? Online Gig Platforms and Local Employment (2025) · cites this paper as Einav et al. 2016
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“Meanwhile, for prospective business owners, although starting a new business carries inherent risks, online gig platforms help mitigate these risks by significantly reducing operational and marketing challenges through efficient matching algorithms and by providing access to an established client base (Einav et al. 2016).”
From Skill-Biased Technical Change, Again? Online Gig Platforms and Local Employment (2025) · cites this paper as Einav et al. 2016
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“Einav et al. (2016) examined how the home-sharing models form market mechanisms.”
BackgroundDoes Craigslist Reduce Waste? Evidence from California and Florida
Fremstad, A. (2016) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.10.018 · Cited by 41
Toward born sharing: The sharing economy evolution enabled by the digital ecosystems
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“−∞ Πit (s ∗ it) f ( Av it ) d Av it ] (6)”
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“Contrary to a centralized economy, where transactional cost is lowered through economies of scale, the sharing economy creates a decentralized market that facilitates heterogeneous product choices (Einav et al., 2016).”
BackgroundHorner, H., Pazour, J. A., & Mitchell, J. E. (2021) · doi:10.1016/j.tre.2021.102419 · Cited by 39
“Decentralized platforms have a lower percentage of fulfilled requests while some requests receive multiple offers [Einav et al. (2016); Newton (2014)].”
BackgroundPeer-to-peer electricity trading: A review of the legal context
van Soest, H. (2018) · Competition and Regulation in Network Industries · doi:10.1177/1783591719834902 · Cited by 39
Digital Battlegrounds: The Power Dynamics and Governance of Contemporary Platforms
Hunt, R. A., Townsend, D. M., Simpson, J., Nugent, R., Stallkamp, M., & Bozdag, E. (2024) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2022.0188 · Cited by 42
Jiang, H., Mei, L., Wei, Y., Zheng, R., & Yan-hua, G. (2022) · Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.jhtm.2022.02.028 · Cited by 38
Ridesharing platform entry effects on ownership-based consumption in Indonesia
Paundra, J., van Dalen, J., Rook, L., & Ketter, W. (2020) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121535 · Cited by 43
Spatial price mimicking on Airbnb: Multi-host vs single-host
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Designing Online Marketplaces: Trust and Reputation Mechanisms
Luca, M. (2016) · NBER Working Paper Series · doi:10.3386/w22616 · Cited by 36
Ma, H., Xiang, Y., Sun, W., Dai, J., Zhang, S.-X., Liu, Y.-B., & Liu, J.-Y. (2024) · IEEE transactions on industry applications · doi:10.1109/tia.2024.3357790 · Cited by 35
“P2P energy markets can organize a large number of transactions among small-scale energy owners [13], effectively promoting the local consumption of DER [14], [15].”
BackgroundGörgülü, H., Topçuoğlu, Y., Yaldız, A., Gökçek, T., Ateş, Y., & Erdinç, O. (2021) · Sustainable Energy, Grids and Networks · doi:10.1016/j.segan.2021.100584 · Cited by 35
Mofidi, S. S., & Pazour, J. A. (2019) · Transportation Research Part B Methodological · doi:10.1016/j.trb.2019.05.008 · Cited by 42
The Cambridge Handbook of the Law of the Sharing Economy
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Morstyn, T., & Mcculloch, M. (2020) · Analytics for the Sharing Economy: Mathematics, Engineering and Business Perspectives · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35032-1_16 · Cited by 34
Fairness, legitimacy and the regulation of home-sharing platforms
Newlands, G., & Lutz, C. (2020) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-08-2019-0733 · Cited by 41
Entry of Providers Onto a Sharing Economy Platform: Macro-Level Factors and Social Interaction
Gerwe, O., Silva, R., & Castro, J. O. D. (2020) · Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice · doi:10.1177/1042258720903404 · Cited by 33
“individual assets or skills that would otherwise be unused or underused (Belk, 2014; Benkler, 2004; Einav et al., 2016).”
BackgroundA phenomenological approach to the collaborative consumer
Barbosa, B., & Fonseca, I. (2019) · Journal of Consumer Marketing · doi:10.1108/jcm-11-2017-2468 · Cited by 42
Service Providers of the Sharing Economy
Ke, Q. (2017) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3134692 · Cited by 28
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Ye, F., Ni, D., & Li, K. (2021) · International Journal of Production Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2020.108022 · Cited by 35
Dynamic, Multidimensional, and Skillset-Specific Reputation Systems for Online Work
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Querbes, A. (2017) · Journal of Evolutionary Economics · doi:10.1007/s00191-017-0548-y · Cited by 29
“As Einav et al. (2016: 616) put it: “ peer-to-peer businesses usually have to tradeoff between two important objectives: designing market mechanisms that efficiently elicit and incorporate dispersed information, and minimizing search and deliberation to keep the user experience convenient.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialP2P lending and outside entrepreneurial finance
Coakley, J., & Huang, W. (2020) · European Journal of Finance · doi:10.1080/1351847x.2020.1842223 · Cited by 31
“However, there are notable exceptions such as the Franks et al. (2020) study of Funding Circle pricing and the Cumming and Hornuf (2020) study of the German P2P portal Zencap.3 One way of conceptualising P2P lending markets is using the Evans and Schmalansee (2016) matchmaker concept. Matchmakers operate multi-sided p…”
BackgroundInfluentialSong, M., Cai, Y., Gao, C., Chen, T., Yao, Y., & Ming, H. (2022) · International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems · doi:10.1016/j.ijepes.2022.108289 · Cited by 38
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Stable matching of customers and manufacturers for sharing economy of additive manufacturing
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Zhong, J., Lin, Y., & Yang, S. (2020) · Journal of Advanced Transportation · doi:10.1155/2020/8831674 · Cited by 32
“For example, P2P platforms such as eBay, Uber and Airbnb promote matching between the seller and the buyer by using their advanced algorithms [14].”
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Bibliometric analysis of scientific production on sharing economy
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Peer-to-Peer Lending and Bank Risks: A Closer Look
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Business Model Design and Architecture for the Internet of Everything
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On-Demand Delivery Platforms and Restaurant Sales
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“Many additional examples along these lines – where simply coordinating demand and supply on a centralized platform creates substantial value – come from internet marketplaces (see Levin, 2013; Einav et al., 2016).”
Mapping the Sharing Economy in China
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“1 The market design literature shows that having a thick market is important for efficiency,2 1For a survey of the recent literature on the peer-to-peer markets, see, for example, Einav et al. (2016) and Farronato and Fradkin (2018).”
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Peer‐to‐peer local electricity market platform pricing strategies for prosumers
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“…results confirm the value propositions of P2P markets that were theorized in the related literature (Andoni et al. 2018; Mengelkamp et al. 2017; Morstyn et al. 2018) and have, partially, been observed in electronic peer-to-peer markets in other domains (Einav et al. 2016; Zimmermann et al. 2018).”
Tosselli, L., Bogado, V., & Martínez, E. (2020) · Simulation modelling practice and theory · doi:10.1016/j.simpat.2019.101980 · Cited by 24
Kusakana, K. (2019) · doi:10.1016/j.est.2019.101048 · Cited by 24
Alaçam, S., & Sencer, A. (2021) · doi:10.3390/logistics5020037 · Cited by 23
Homines Diversi: Heterogeneous Earner Behaviors in the Platform Economy
Cansoy, M., Eddy, S., Ladegaard, I., & Schor, J. (2020) · Sociologica · doi:10.6092/issn.1971-8853/11508 · Cited by 23
“This results in a shift from the firm (a command and control entity) toward the market (a voluntaristic, atomistic structure), as well as toward smaller, peer-to-peer entities (Einav et al., 2016).”
BackgroundThe sharing economy is not always greener: a review and consolidation of empirical evidence
Meshulam, T., Goldberg, S., Ivanova, D., & Makov, T. (2023) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ad0f00 · Cited by 29
“Though sharing of underutilized assets is not new, the internet has allowed sharing to expand beyond existing social networks of friends and family and turn into a market phenomenon (Belk 2014, Schor 2014, Einav et al 2016, Richards and Hamilton 2018, Curtis and Mont 2020, Makov et al 2023).”
BackgroundBurtch, G., Hong, Y., & Kumar, S. (2020) · Production and Operations Management · doi:10.1111/poms.13341 · Cited by 27
“Trust is critical to the sustained operation of online platform markets because employers and service providers both operate semi-anonymously (Ba and Pavlou 2002, Einav et al. 2016, Fugger et al. 2019, Hong and Shao 2020).”
A trust-based peer-to-peer digital brand equity (P2P-DBE) model
Ozbal, O., Duman, T., & Topaloglu, O. (2020) · The Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice · doi:10.1080/10696679.2020.1794901 · Cited by 35
A proposal to regulate the peer‐to‐peer market for tourist accommodation
Benítez-Aurioles, B. (2020) · doi:10.1002/jtr.2393 · Cited by 22
Image features and demand in the sharing economy: A study of Airbnb
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Redundancy in the sharing economy
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“Recent studies have shown that the expected income largely impacts the participation of resource providers (i.e., drivers) [13, 15] and that cost is the most influential factor in their participation [12].”
BackgroundDesigning and Evolving an Electronic Agricultural Marketplace in Uganda
Newman, N., Bergquist, L., Immorlica, N., Leyton-Brown, K., Lucier, B., McIntosh, C., Quinn, J., & Ssekibuule, R. (2018) · The Compass · doi:10.1145/3209811.3209862 · Cited by 22
Choi, T., Zhang, J., & Cai, Y. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Systems Man and Cybernetics Systems · doi:10.1109/tsmc.2019.2925063 · Cited by 27
Digital Discrimination in Sharing Economy A Requirements Engineering Perspective
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“In general, any form of discrimination leads to a decline in trust between users and in the platform in general [46].”
BackgroundThe Limits of Centralized Pricing in Online Marketplaces and the Value of User Control
Filippas, A., Jagabathula, S., & Sundararajan, A. (2023) · Management Sciences · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2023.4789 · Cited by 20
“…use technology to help providers and renters to find, assess, and transact with each other more efficiently than what is possible in most physical markets (Cramer and Krueger 2016; Einav et al. 2016; Sun-dararajan 2016; Horton 2017; Filippas et al. 2020, 2022; Liu et al. 2018; Athey and Luca 2019).”
BackgroundFleischer, A., Ert, E., & Bar‐Nahum, Z. (2021) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/00472875211021660 · Cited by 24
“The high risk involved in such transactions makes trust crucial to their success to an even greater degree than it is for more traditional P2P online markets that are limited to online transactions, such as eBay (Einav, Farronato, and Levin 2016).”
BackgroundWhat Do Prosumer Marginal Utility Functions Look Like? Derivation and Analysis
Ziras, C., Sousa, T., & Pinson, P. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Power Systems · doi:10.1109/tpwrs.2021.3068620 · Cited by 20
“Out of those applications, peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading in particular has gained traction as a framework that is able to promote a more bottom-up operation of power systems through a more active role of small-scale prosumers at a residential level [9].”
BackgroundSleuwaegen, L. E., & Smith, P. M. (2020) · Electronic Commerce Research · doi:10.1007/s10660-020-09440-1 · Cited by 23
Thomsen, J., Hussein, N. S., Senkpiel, C., Hartmann, N., & Schlegl, T. (2017) · Sustainable Energy Grids and Networks · doi:10.1016/j.segan.2017.09.001 · Cited by 24
Sharing economy and dynamic pricing: Is the impact of Airbnb on the hotel industry time-dependent?
Roma, P., Panniello, U., Vasi, M., & Nigro, G. L. (2021) · Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.jhtm.2021.09.013 · Cited by 22
A context-aware approach to automated negotiation using reinforcement learning
Kröhling, D., Chiotti, O., & Martínez, E. (2021) · Advanced Engineering Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.aei.2020.101229 · Cited by 19
Properties of feedback mechanisms on digital platforms: an exploratory study
Steur, A., & Seiter, M. (2020) · Journal of Business Economics · doi:10.1007/s11573-020-01009-6 · Cited by 25
“Platforms use one-sided feedback to evaluate users of different market sides (Chua and Banerjee 2015; Einav et al. 2015; Tadelis 2016).”
MethodA ‘Tripadvisor’ for disability? Social enterprise and ‘digital disruption’ in Australia
McLoughlin, I. P., McNicoll, Y., Kelk, A. B., Cornford, J., & Hutchinson, K. (2018) · Information, Communication & Society · doi:10.1080/1369118x.2018.1538382 · Cited by 19
Strategic Surge Pricing and Forecast Communication on On-Demand Service Platforms
Guda, H., & Subramanian, U. (2017) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2895227 · Cited by 19
“Our work also differs from research on productsharing platforms that allow users to rent assets from owners (e.g., Benjaafar et al. 2015; Einav et al. 2015; Fraiberger and Sundararajan 2015; Jiang and Tian 2016; Horton and Zeckhauser 2016); on product-sharing platforms, customers need not be served…”
Quality Differentiation and Matching Performance in Peer-to-Peer Markets: Evidence from Airbnb Plus
Wang, H.-C., Williams, B., Xie, K. L., & Chen, W. (2023) · Management Sciences · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2020.03920 · Cited by 18
The nature of actor engagement intensity: a classification scheme
Wang, E., Fehrer, J. A., Li, L. P., Brodie, R. J., & Jurić, B. (2023) · Journal of service management · doi:10.1108/josm-11-2022-0348 · Cited by 17
From High Bar to Uneven Bars: The Impact of Information Granularity in Quality Certification
Hui, X., Liu, Z., & Zhang, W. (2020) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2022.4666 · Cited by 26
The Role of On-Demand Delivery Platforms in RestaurantsPreprint
Li, Z.-X., & Wang, G. (2020) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3813891 · Cited by 18
“Online platforms and digital distribution channels lower the costs of entry for small businesses (Einav et al. 2016; Li et al. 2018), and may also complement existing channels (Etzion and Pang 2014; Xu et al. 2014, 2017).”
BackgroundBidding on a Peer-to-Peer Energy Market: An Exploratory Field Study
Wörner, A., Tiefenbeck, V., Wortmann, F., Meeuw, A., Ableitner, L., Fleisch, E., & Azevedo, I. (2022) · Information systems research · doi:10.1287/isre.2021.1098 · Cited by 17
A peer-to-peer market for utility exchanges in Eco-Industrial Parks using automated negotiations
Kröhling, D. E., Mione, F. M., Hernández, F., & Martínez, E. (2021) · Expert Systems with Applications · doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2021.116211 · Cited by 20
Seasonality in the peer-to-peer market for tourist accommodation: the case of Majorca
Benítez-Aurioles, B. (2021) · doi:10.1108/jhti-10-2020-0192 · Cited by 17
Pricing in C2C Sharing Platforms
Zimmermann, S., Angerer, P., Provin, D., & Nault, B. R. (2018) · Journal of the AIS · doi:10.17705/1jais.00505 · Cited by 17
“As a result, Einav et al. (2016) call for simpler pricing mechanisms that make use of available information that can electively substitute for auctions.”
BackgroundMaking the Most of Platforms: A Policy Research AgendaPreprint
Coyle, D. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2857188 · Cited by 13
Pros and cons of sharing economy regulation. Implications for sustainable city logistics
Pawlicz, A. (2019) · Transportation Research Procedia · doi:10.1016/j.trpro.2019.06.042 · Cited by 17
Adewole, A., Shipworth, M., Lemaire, X., & Sanderson, D. (2023) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4162557 · Cited by 16
Digital Verification and Inclusive Access to Credit: An Empirical InvestigationPreprint
Chan, T. Y., Hamdi, N., Hui, X., & Jiang, Z. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3556554 · Cited by 6
“Lastly, our paper also relates to the large literature that shows that digitization leads to higher market efficiency through a reduction in transaction cost and matching frictions (see Einav et al. [2016] and Goldfarb and Tucker [2019] for a comprehensive review).”
Zhang, Z., & Li, B.-B. (2017) · Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining · doi:10.1145/3097983.3098058 · Cited by 16
“Regarding the sharing economy itself, [4, 7, 10] focus theoretically on the management or preferences of the sharing economy companies, platforms, or participating consumers.”
BackgroundOviedo, D., Jaramillo, D. P., & Nieto, M. (2021) · doi:10.18235/0003579 · Cited by 15
“Accordingly, Einav et al. (2015) argue that to cope with the high flexibility and scalability of Ride-hailing platforms the strategy should be early but lenient regulatory intervention.”
BackgroundInfluentialRegulatory Developments in the Gig Economy: A Literature Review
Kusumawardhana, V. H., Herlina, M. G., Bangsawan, S., & Tuori, M. A. (2020) · The Winners · doi:10.21512/tw.v21i2.6758 · Cited by 25
The Impact of Home Sharing on Residential Real Estate Markets
Bao, H. X. H., & Shah, S. (2020) · Journal of Risk and Financial Management · doi:10.3390/jrfm13080161 · Cited by 15
“On the other end are policies that have used existing planning regulations in order to restrict growth or entirely curb the operation of the platforms (Ferreri and Sanyal, 2018).”
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Forman, C., & Goldfarb, A. (2020) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.3386/w27338 · Cited by 15
Fixed, flexible, and dynamics pricing decisions of Airbnb mode with social learning
Chen, Y., Zhang, R., & Liu, B. (2020) · doi:10.1177/1354816619896956 · Cited by 15
“Some existing empirical and analytical works have studied on how to subsidize different market players to accelerate the growth of a peer-to-peer platform (Einav et al., 2016; Hawlitschek et al., 2018; Moreno and Terwiesch, 2014; Seamans and Zhu, 2013; Snir and Hitt, 2003; Yoganarasimhan, 2013).”
BackgroundAsymmetric Information, Reputation, and Welfare in Online Credit MarketsPreprint
Xin, Y. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3580468 · Cited by 23
Clemens, V., Wilden, R., Akaka, M. A., Foege, J. N., & Nüesch, S. (2025) · Industrial Marketing Management · doi:10.1016/j.indmarman.2025.01.003 · Cited by 14
Pang, J., Fu, X., & Qi, Y. (2024) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2024.103764 · Cited by 15
Metadata
- Authors
- Einav, L., Farronato, C., & Levin, J.
- Affiliations
- Department of Economics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-6072;,
- National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Economics
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2016-10-31
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 615-635
- ISSN
- 1941-1383 (ISSN-L)
- 1941-1391
- OpenAlex
- W2144931085
- Cited by
- 553
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 38 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 81 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 55 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 15
- FWCI
- 14.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Economics (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
- Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Sharing Economy and Platforms
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Digital Platforms and Economics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Economy and Work Transformation
- Keywords
- peer-to-peer markets, market design, pricing, reputation systems, market entry, data regulation, employment regulation
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