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Peer-to-Peer Markets
Open accessAbstract
Peer-to-peer markets such as eBay, Uber, and Airbnb allow small suppliers to compete with traditional providers of goods or services. We view the primary function of these markets as making it easy for buyers to find sellers and engage in convenient, trustworthy transactions. We discuss elements of market design that make this possible, including search and matching algorithms, pricing, and reputation systems. We then develop a simple model of how these markets enable entry by small or flexible suppliers, and how they impact existing firms. Finally, we consider the regulation of peer-to-peer markets and the economic arguments for different approaches to licensing and certification, data, and employment regulation.
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“First, online gig platforms exhibit enhanced efficiency compared to traditional housekeeping businesses in facilitating key functions, such as matching and supervision processes (e.g., Cramer andKrueger 2016, Einav et al. 2016).”
From Skill-Biased Technical Change, Again? Online Gig Platforms and Local Employment (2025) · cites this paper as Einav et al. 2016
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“Meanwhile, for prospective business owners, although starting a new business carries inherent risks, online gig platforms help mitigate these risks by significantly reducing operational and marketing challenges through efficient matching algorithms and by providing access to an established client base (Einav et al. 2016).”
From Skill-Biased Technical Change, Again? Online Gig Platforms and Local Employment (2025) · cites this paper as Einav et al. 2016
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BackgroundSectoral evolution and shifting service delivery models in the sharing economy
Mahmuda, S., Sigler, T., Knight, E. R. W., & Corcoran, J. (2020) · BuR - Business Research · doi:10.1007/s40685-020-00110-4 · Cited by 6
“The emergence of P2P reflects values of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, which trends towards a ‘crowd-based market’ away from the ‘hierarchies’—a shift from centralised control towards peer-based organisation of economic activities (Sundararajan 2016; Ferdinand et al. 2016; Einav et al. 2016).”
BackgroundPeer Engagement Behaviors: Conceptualization and Research Directions:
Lin, M.-Z., Miao, L., Wei, W., & Moon, H. (2019) · doi:10.25384/sage.c.4603382.v1 · Cited by 4
Who Forgoes Screening in Online Markets and When?: Evidence from AirbnbPreprint
Mayya, R., Ye, S., Viswanathan, S., & Agarwal, R. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3082018 · Cited by 8
“…and growing literature on the sharing economy has increasingly attended to the social and economic impacts of online sharing marketplaces (e.g., Einav et al. 2016; Li et al. 2016; Martin et al. 2010; Park et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2016; Zervas et al. 2014) and examined how transactions are…”
Investigating Utility, Attitude, Intention, and Satisfaction of Skill-Sharing Economy
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van IJzendoorn, B. (2017) · arXiv.org · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1703.05713 · Cited by 4
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Mitigating the Cold-start Problem in Reputation Systems: Evidence from a Field Experiment
Hui, X., Liu, Z.-K., & Zhang, W. (2020) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3731169 · Cited by 4
“We therefore take the matching approach à la Elfenbein et al. (2012) and Einav et al. (2015), and match listings based on seller ID, listing title, listing subtitle, leaf category ID on eBay, posted price, and week that the listing starts.”
InfluentialPeer-to-peer markets and sharing economy of the smart grids
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Sizzle or Fizzle? Supply and Consumption Dynamics of Home-Cooked Food on Sharing Platform
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“Platforms that support the sharing economy have enabled consumers to use underutilized inventory collaboratively through fee-sharing platforms and engage in convenient and trustworthy transactions with sellers (Einav et al., 2016).”
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“For instance, Einav et al. (2016) in their study on ride-sharing platforms like Uber, demonstrated that disclosing information, such as driver ratings, trip fare estimates, and real-time tracking can increase service trans-parency and thus encourage greater user compliance, such as respectful…”
BackgroundLeveraging Social Media to Buy Fake Reviews
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Social identity of civil servants and online peer-to-peer lending: Evidence from China
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From Airbnb to solar: electricity market platforms as local sharing economies
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“…to a growing number of studies on peer-to-peer service markets, where platforms play an active role in matching heterogeneous buyers and sellers (Einav et al., 2016; Chen and Shelton, 2016; Fradkin, 2017; Horton, 2018; Basu, Bhaskaran, and, Mukherjee, 2019). of refinement tools in consumers’…”
BackgroundTwo‐sided service markets: Effects of quality differentiation on market efficiency
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The double-edged impact of e-commerce participation on farm’s Income: Evidence from China
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Liu, Y., Zhao, X., Lou, B., & Li, X. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3877868 · Cited by 6
“Gig platforms can adopt AI that helps in reducing transaction cost and matching frictions by processing a sheer volume of market information in an efficient way to identify the optimal match between workers and employers requesting job tasks (Einav et al., 2016).”
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“They are broadly similar to a host of other online marketplaces that have arisen in recent years (Einav, Farronato and Levin, 2016).”
Safety Reviews on Airbnb: An Information TalePreprint
Culotta, A., Jin, G. Z., Sun, Y., & Wagman, L. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4631020
“Our findings on the “within-listing-crossbuyer” effect of VSRs and LSRs confirm the classical literature of online seller reputation (see reviews by Bajari and Hortacsu 2004, Einav et al. 2016, and Tadelis 2016) and consumer response to critical feedback in particular (Chakravarty et al. 2010).”
Ancrage conceptuel et analyse des enjeux de la tarification dynamique en ligne
Paraschiv, C., Bouzaglo, S. B., Turinici, M., & Rousset, X. (2022) · Recherches en Sciences de Gestion · doi:10.3917/resg.151.0083 · Cited by 2
Exponential Income Distribution and Evolution of Unemployment Compensation in the United KingdomPreprint
Tao, Y. (2021) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202107.0350.v1 · Cited by 5
A New World for Electricity Transactions: Peer-to-Peer and Peer-to-X
Glachant, J., & Rossetto, N. (2021) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3858541 · Cited by 2
“By leveraging network effects, a platform can establish a thriving two-sided market where peers can find counterparts with whom to exchange their goods or services (Einav et al., 2016; Parker et al., 2016).”
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Kröhling, D., & Martínez, E. C. (2020) · IEEE Biennial Congress of Argentina · doi:10.1109/argencon49523.2020.9505406 · Cited by 2
“Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Markets [4] are communities where collaboration between peer members emerges as a means to socially and individually reach higher profits.”
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“Similar sharing schemes are already in place in other markets, for example via Airbnb in the hotel industry, or Uber in taxi hire [3].”
BackgroundWelfare Estimation in Peer-to-Peer Markets with Heterogenous Agents: The Case of Airbnb
Farhoodi, A. (2019) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3480518 · Cited by 2
Using General Adversarial Networks for Marketing: A Case Study of AirbnbPreprint
Martinez, R. D., & Kamalu, J. (2018) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1806.11432 · Cited by 1
“The development of online peer-to-peer markets in the 1990s, galvanized by the launch of sites like eBay, fundamentally shifted the way buyers and sellers could connect [4].”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Tragedy of Your Upstairs Neighbors: When Is the Home-Sharing Externality Internalized?
Filippas, A., & Horton, J. (2017) · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2443343 · Cited by 2
Zhang, H., Wang, H.-C., Mehra, A., & Zheng, E. (2022) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4279215 · Cited by 2
“…to consumers (Dinerstein et al. 2018); designing interactive decision tools, such as recommendation and reputation systems (Häubl and Trifts 2000, Einav et al. 2016, Tadelis 2016, Ashlagi et al. 2020, Bimpikis et al. 2020); and disclosing richer marketplace information, such as demand…”
BackgroundWhat Drives the Efficiency in Ridesharing Markets? Evidence from Austin, Texas
Al-Chanati, M., & Iyer, V. (2021) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3959363 · Cited by 2
“Einav et al. (2016) give an overview of these peer-to-peer markets.”
BackgroundIndustry 4.0 and The Sharing Economy
Shorten, R., Oliver, J., Clayton, D., Malik, A., & Lhachemi, H. (2020) · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-35032-1_19 · Cited by 2
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“…of digital platforms has significantly influenced various economic activities, including ride-hailing services (Uber), international money transfers (Transferwise), start-up financing (Kickstarter), food delivery (Just Eat), freelance services (Upwork), and many others (Einav et al., 2016).”
Consumer Reviews and Regulation: Evidence from New York City Restaurants
Farronato, C., & Zervas, G. (2026) · Marketing science (Providence, R.I.) · doi:10.1287/mksc.2023.0088 · Cited by 1
Self-citationShort-term vs. medium-term rentals: Rents, market tightness, and foreclosure effects
Ouasbaa, G., & Raya, J. (2026) · Journal of Housing Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jhe.2026.102124 · Cited by 1
Who shops online? the role of policy, household characteristics, and family networks
Kluser, F., & Ehrlich, M. V. (2026) · Zeitschrift für schweizerische Statistik und Volkswirtschaft/Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Volkswirtschaft und Statistik/Swiss journal of economics and statistics · doi:10.1186/s41937-025-00147-4
“Meanwhile, Einav et al. (2016) study how peer-to-peer platforms reconfigure traditional notions of ownership and usage, extending the logic of online retail to services and secondhand markets.”
Adada, F. B., & Fritzsche, A. (2025) · Creativity and Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/caim.70025 · Cited by 1
Taxation planning policies in the meal-sharing economy: a futurist approach
Akahome, J. E., & Matsoso, M. (2025) · Journal of Foodservice Business Research · doi:10.1080/15378020.2025.2572879 · Cited by 1
“The taxation of the meal-sharing economy presents significant challenges due to its informal nature, irregular income flows, and decentralized digital trans-actions (Einav et al., 2016).”
Wyskwarski, M., Musioł-Urbańczyk, A., Sorychta-Wojsczyk, B., & Zdonek, D. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17104443 · Cited by 1
The sharing economy reaching its boundaries: What’s Next?
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A contemporary social network analysis of sharing economy literature
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“However, assessing property quality in the sharing economy of Airbnb can be challenging due to the uniqueness of each listing (Einav et al., 2016).”
BackgroundStrategic pricing, lifespan choices and environmental implications of peer-to-peer sharing
André, F. J., Arguedas, C., & Rousseau, S. (2024) · Journal of Environmental Economics and Management · doi:10.1016/j.jeem.2024.102953 · Cited by 2
Signals that sharing economy service providers should send out: The case of codementor
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Individualization in Online Markets: A Generalized Model of Price Discrimination through Learning
Ahmed, R. (2023) · Journal of theoretical and applied electronic commerce research · doi:10.3390/jtaer18040104 · Cited by 4
“For example, the availability of consumer reviews for products has increased consumer confidence as they are better able to identify credible sellers, which in turn has increased sales [2–5].”
BackgroundBieri, D. S. (2023) · Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society · doi:10.1093/cjres/rsad025 · Cited by 1
Inattention and Forewarning on Individuals' Smart Apps Permissions-Consenting Behavior
Negash, S., Meso, P. N., & Musa, P. F. (2023) · Journal of Global Information Management · doi:10.4018/jgim.328519 · Cited by 1
The social value of a ridesharing platform: a hedonic pricing approach
Paik, Y., & Makridis, C. (2022) · Empirical Economics · doi:10.1007/s00181-022-02310-9 · Cited by 1
“While some negative dimensions have prompted considerable dialog about how to regulate peer-to-peer sharing platforms (Einav et al. 2016), quantifying the social value of a ridesharing platform would assist governments in forming an impartial view and promoting public welfare.”
Creditability-Reputation-Based Trading Mechanism for Peer-to-Peer Energy Market
Gao, S.-Y., Chang, M., & Song, Y. (2022) · 2022 5th International Conference on Energy, Electrical and Power Engineering (CEEPE) · doi:10.1109/ceepe55110.2022.9783410 · Cited by 1
“Furthermore, it may be designed to prioritize the well-being of the participating individuals by providing maximum individual freedom, financial independence, and privacy [3].”
BackgroundBenítez-Aurioles, B. (2022) · Boletín Económico de ICE · doi:10.32796/bice.2022.3143.7345 · Cited by 1
“56 C o la b o ra ci o n es BOLETÍN ECONÓMICO DE ICE 3143 FEBRERO DE 2022 tanto la entrada como la salida del mercado (Einav et al., 2016).”
BackgroundA Framework for an Optimized Smart Energy System
Phadke, A., Medrano, F., Brahmbhatt, J., & Ustymenko, S. (2022) · International Symposium on Electrical, Electronics and Information Engineering · doi:10.1109/iseeie55684.2022.00049 · Cited by 1
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“Homeowners transform underutilized rooms or houses from idle assets into capital to improve their standard of living (Einav et al. , 2016; Sundararajan, 2016).”
BackgroundDecentralized Decisions and Technological Progress: A Formal Proof
Tao, Y. (2021) · doi:10.20944/preprints202107.0499.v1 · Cited by 1
“In the economic literature, a peer-to-peer economy without an intermediary third-party is recognized as an equal-opportunity market economy (Einav et al., 2016; Davidson et al., 2018; Filippi et al., 2020; Hojckova et al., 2020).”
BackgroundTechnology factor as society’s information stock: An elegant proof
Tao, Y. (2021) · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-534299/v1 · Cited by 1
“In the economic literature, a peer-to-peer economy without an intermediary third-party is recognized as an equal-opportunity market economy (Einav et al., 2016; Davidson et al., 2018; Filippi et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBurtch, G., Hong, Y., & Kumar, S. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3436213 · Cited by 3
Ducci, F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108867528.005
Tucci, V., & Costa, H. A. (2020) · doi:10.17648/raoit.v14n1.5667 · Cited by 1
Monetize This? Marketized-Commons Platforms, New Opportunities and Challenges for Collective Action
Wilkins, D. J., Nuseibeh, B., & Levine, M. (2019) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22636-7_9 · Cited by 1
“Exemplified by platforms such as eBay, Uber and Airbnb, they help buyers and sellers find each other and engage in trustworthy transactions [1].”
BackgroundMethodPang, J., Fu, X., Luan, R., & Bai, L. (2026) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2025.104481 · Cited by 1
Sharing Economy: Nachhaltigkeit versus Profitorientierung
Heimel, J., & Krams, B. (2021) · Nachhaltiger Konsum · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-33353-9_4 · Cited by 1
Han, L., Morstyn, T., & Mcculloch, M. (2021) · Local Electricity Markets · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-820074-2.00012-5 · Cited by 1
The Impact of Sharing Economy: Evidence from Airbnb and Taiwanese Hotel Industry
Kuo, F.-C. (2020) · Social Science Research Network · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3622098 · Cited by 1
The Mechanics of the Gig Economy: A System Dynamics Approach
Choi, J., Nazareth, D., & Ngo-Ye, T. (2020) · Web · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-79454-5_6 · Cited by 1
Regulating Smart Distributed Generation Electricity Systems in the European Union
Iliopoulos, T. G. (2019) · Regulating New Technologies in Uncertain Times · doi:10.1007/978-94-6265-279-8_9 · Cited by 1
Lichter, D., & Weiber, R. (2019) · Forum Dienstleistungsmanagement · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-26389-8_14 · Cited by 4
Pricing Mechanism in Online Credit MarketsPreprint
Uetake, K. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3323083 · Cited by 1
“…optimal when a seller faces buyers with private information about their preferences, there are additional frictions in the market and auctions may not be attractive in such cases.3 As Einav, Farronato, and Levin (2016) discuss, a prominent example of such a friction is unobserved seller quality.”
BackgroundClauß, T., Harengel, P., & Hock, M. (2018) · Review of Managerial Science · doi:10.1007/s11846-018-0313-0 · Cited by 122
Pricing decisions of car aggregation platforms in sharing economy: a developing economy perspective
Gupta, A., Saha, B., & Banerjee, P. (2018) · Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management · doi:10.1057/s41272-018-0145-1 · Cited by 13
Li, K., Zhang, D.-R., Zhang, J.-L., & Zhang, Z. (2026) · Chaos, Solitons & Fractals · doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2026.119034
BazaarBench: Delegation Safety in Decentralized C2C Marketplaces Run by LLM AgentsPreprint
Wang, Z., Shi, S., Oldfield, J. P., Marro, S., Yu, J., Torr, P. H. S., Du, Y., & Bibi, A. (2026) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2610.06748
“In decentralized consumer-to-consumer (C2C) marketplaces [1], users list goods, negotiate with strangers, and rate their trading partners.”
Metadata
- Authors
- Einav, L., Farronato, C., & Levin, J.
- Affiliations
- Department of Economics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-6072;,
- National Bureau of Economic Research (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Economics
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2016-10-31
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 615-635
- ISSN
- 1941-1383 (ISSN-L)
- 1941-1391
- OpenAlex
- W2144931085
- Cited by
- 553
- References
- 46
- Citations by year
- 2026: 38 · 2025: 35 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 49 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 81 · 2019: 58 · 2018: 55 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 15
- FWCI
- 14.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Economics (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation
- Alfred P. Sloan Foundation
- Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Sharing Economy and Platforms
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Digital Platforms and Economics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Economy and Work Transformation
- Keywords
- peer-to-peer markets, market design, pricing, reputation systems, market entry, data regulation, employment regulation
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