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Dark Energy Versus Modified Gravity
Open accessAbstract
Understanding the reason for the observed accelerated expansion of the Universe represents one of the fundamental open questions in physics. In cosmology, a classification has emerged among physical models for this acceleration, distinguishing between dark energy and modified gravity. In this review, we provide a brief overview of models in both categories as well as their phenomenology and characteristic observable signatures in cosmology. We also introduce a rigorous distinction between dark energy and modified gravity based on the strong and weak equivalence principles.
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“They state that using the SEP to make this distinction can be motivated further by the conjecture that GR is the only metric theory that satisfy the SEP, see Will (2014).”
From Testing general relativity in cosmology (2019) · cites this paper as Joyce et al. (2016)
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“Joyce et al. (2016) and possibly others, propose to use the strong equivalence principle (SEP) (see Sect. 2.1) to draw a distinction between GR dark energy models versus MG models. They suggest to call any model that satisfies the SEP as a dark energy model and any model that violates SEP to be an MG model.”
From Testing general relativity in cosmology (2019) · cites this paper as Joyce et al. (2016)
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“They state that, heuristically, the SEP forbids the presence of a fifth force which motivates the use of such a discriminant.”
From Testing general relativity in cosmology (2019) · cites this paper as Joyce et al. (2016)
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Gravitationally induced particle production in scalar-tensor f ( R , T ) gravity
Pinto, M. A. S., Harko, T., & Lobo, F. S. N. (2022) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.106.044043 · Cited by 30
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Barreira, A., Bose, S., Li, B., & Llinares, C. (2017) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2017/02/031 · Cited by 29
Tests of Gravity Theories Using Supermassive Black Holes
Sakstein, J., Jain, B., Heyl, J. S., & Hui, L. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal Letters · doi:10.3847/2041-8213/aa7e26 · Cited by 29
“…in the construction of healthy higher-derivative scalar-tensor theories (see Clifton et al. 2012; Joyce et al. 2015; Berti et al. 2015; Koyama 2016; Joyce et al. 2016; Bull et al. 2016; Burrage & Sakstein 2016 for recent reviews) that have opened up a new realm of possibilities for driving the…”
BackgroundModel comparison tests of modified gravity from the Eöt-Wash experiment
Krishak, A., & Desai, S. (2020) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2020/07/006 · Cited by 29
“Most of the recent resurgence in these alternate theories of gravity has been driven by the need to address problems in Cosmology such as Dark matter, Dark Energy, Inflation, Baryogenesis, and data driven cosmological tensions [10–23].”
BackgroundObservational Constraints on Dynamical Dark Energy Models
Avsajanishvili, O., Chitov, G. Y., Kahniashvili, T., Mandal, S., & Samushia, L. (2024) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe10030122 · Cited by 34
Underdetermination in classic and modern tests of general relativity
Wolf, W. J., Sanchioni, M., & Read, J. A. M. (2024) · European Journal for Philosophy of Science · doi:10.1007/s13194-024-00617-1 · Cited by 45
“Strong underdetermination 6 See Clifton et al. (2012), Joyce et al. (2016), and Wolf and Ferreira (2023) for physics discussion on various modified gravity and dark energy proposals aimed at accounting for the current epoch of accelerating expansion and Duerr and Wolf (2023) and Martens and Lehmkuhl…”
Lemaître–Tolman–Bondi dust solutions in f ( R ) gravity
Sussman, R. A., & Jaime, L. G. (2017) · Classical and Quantum Gravity · doi:10.1088/1361-6382/aa91f5 · Cited by 28
Satpathy, S., Croft, R. A. C., Ho, S., & Li, B. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz009 · Cited by 27
“Planck Collaboration et al. (2016); Koyama (2016); Beltrán Jiménez et al. (2016); Joyce et al. (2016) present some important advances made in this regard.”
BackgroundExploring the cosmological synergy between galaxy cluster and cosmic void number counts
Pelliciari, D., Contarini, S., Marulli, F., Moscardini, L., Giocoli, C., Lesci, G. F., & Dolag, K. (2023) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stad956 · Cited by 27
Non-fiducial cosmological test from geometrical and dynamical distortions around voids
Correa, C. M., Paz, D. J., Padilla, N. D., Ruiz, A. N., Angulo, R. E., & Sánchez, A. G. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz821 · Cited by 27
Current constraints on deviations from General Relativity using binning in redshift and scale
García-Quintero, C., Ishak, M., & Ning, O. (2020) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2020/12/018 · Cited by 26
“, the reviews [1–5] and references therein.”
Comparison of different approaches to the quasi-static approximation in Horndeski models
Pace, F., Battye, R. A., Bellini, E., Lombriser, L., Vernizzi, F., & Bolliet, B. (2021) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2021/06/017 · Cited by 26
Self-citationTesting gravity theories using tensor perturbations
Lin, W., & Ishak, M. (2016) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.94.123011 · Cited by 25
The Effect of Modified Gravity on the Odds of the Bound Violations of the Turn-around Radii
Lee, J., & Li, B. (2017) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/aa706f · Cited by 25
“The values of rc used for the DF5 and DF6 models are also compatible with the recent observational constraints (see Table 1 in Joyce et al. 2016, and references therein).”
MethodEffective interactions in Ricci-Based Gravity below the non-metricity scale
Delhom, A., Miralles, V., & Peñuelas, A. (2020) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-020-7880-3 · Cited by 33
Testing general relativity on cosmological scales at redshift z ∼ 1.5 with quasar and CMB lensing
Zhang, Y., Pullen, A. R., Alam, S., Singh, S., Burtin, E., Chuang, C.-H., Hou, J., Lyke, B. W., Myers, A. D., Neveux, R., et al. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3672 · Cited by 25
Kalita, S., & Mukhopadhyay, B. (2021) · The Astrophysical Journal · doi:10.3847/1538-4357/abddb8 · Cited by 25
Towards a non-Gaussian model of redshift space distortions
Cuesta-Lazaro, C., Li, B., Eggemeier, A., Zarrouk, P., Baugh, C. M., Nishimichi, T., & Takada, M. (2020) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/staa2249 · Cited by 25
“Most of the extensions to the standard model add new degrees of freedom to either the energy content of the Universe, or to the way space-time geometry reacts to it, by modifying general relativity (Clifton et al. 2012; Joyce et al. 2016).”
BackgroundLatest evidence for a late time vacuum–geodesic CDM interaction
Hogg, N. B., Bruni, M., Crittenden, R., Martinelli, M., & Peirone, S. (2020) · Leiden Repository (Leiden University) · Cited by 25
Constraints on field flows of quintessence dark energy
Tosone, F., Haridasu, B. S., Lukovic, V., & Vittorio, N. (2018) · Physical Review D · doi:10.1103/physrevd.99.043503 · Cited by 22
Spin-orbit effects for compact binaries in scalar-tensor gravity
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Cosmological constraints from the power spectrum and bispectrum of 21cm intensity maps
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Clustering and redshift-space distortions in modified gravity models with massive neutrinos
García-Farieta, J. E., Marulli, F., Veropalumbo, A., Moscardini, L., Casas-Miranda, R. A., Giocoli, C., & Baldi, M. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1850 · Cited by 24
“MG models represent one of the most viable alternatives to explain cosmic acceleration (for a review see e.g. Joyce et al. 2016).”
MethodStatefinder diagnosis for Tsallis agegraphic dark energy model with ωD − ωD′ pair
Srivastava, S., Dubey, V. C., & Sharma, U. K. (2020) · International Journal of Modern Physics A · doi:10.1142/s0217751x2050027x · Cited by 24
A search for the variation of speed of light using galaxy cluster gas mass fraction measurements
Mendonça, I. E. C. R., Bora, K., Holanda, R. F. L., Desai, S., & Pereira, S. H. (2021) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2021/11/034 · Cited by 23
f(R) gravity modifications: from the action to the data
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Testing cosmic acceleration for w(z) parametrizations using fgas measurements in galaxy clusters
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“…explain this feature of the Universe: one is to modify the right hand side of Einstein’s equation by assuming the existence of an energy source, dubbed dark energy (DE), that produces these effects, and the other is to modify the left hand side by modifying the gravity theory (Joyce et al. 2016).”
Hadron matter in neutron stars in view of gravitational wave observations
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Mass-temperature relation in ΛCDM and modified gravity
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Zoomed cosmological simulations of Milky Way-sized haloes inf(R) gravity
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“Such alternative cosmological models can be broadly characterized into two classes (see e.g. Clifton et al. 2012; Joyce et al. 2016).”
BackgroundInherently stable effective field theory for dark energy and modified gravity
Lombriser, L., Dalang, C., Kennedy, J., & Taylor, A. N. (2019) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2019/01/041 · Cited by 22
Self-citationAn accurate fitting function for scale-dependent growth rate in Hu-Sawicki f(R) gravity
Mirzatuny, N., & Pierpaoli, E. (2019) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2019/09/066 · Cited by 22
The cosmological constant as a zero action boundary
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Probing modified gravity with integrated Sachs-Wolfe CMB and galaxy cross-correlations
Kable, J. A., Benevento, G., Frusciante, N., Felice, A. D., & Tsujikawa, S. (2022) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2022/09/002 · Cited by 27
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Modified Gravity Approaches to the Cosmological Constant Problem
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Clustering dark energy imprints on cosmological observables of the gravitational field
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Model comparison tests of modified gravity from the Eöt-Wash experiment
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“The source of this cosmic acceleration is a big puzzle in modern cosmology and two approaches have been adopted to explain it: either to postulate the existence of a dark energy component or to modify the gravity laws (Joyce et al. 2016).”
BackgroundNoether symmetries in interacting quintessence cosmology
Piedipalumbo, E., Laurentis, M. D., & Capozzıello, S. (2019) · Physics of the Dark Universe · doi:10.1016/j.dark.2019.100444 · Cited by 20
Testing f(R) gravity models with quasar x-ray and UV fluxes
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Constraints on decaying early modified gravity from cosmological observations
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Self-citationModelling the matter bispectrum at small scales in modified gravity
Bose, B., Byun, J., Lacasa, F., Dizgah, A. M., & Lombriser, L. (2020) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2020/02/025 · Cited by 20
“Note that the form of the lensing spectrum is unaltered in the theories of gravity we consider (see [15] for a review on this topic).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSynergies between radio, optical and microwave observations at high redshift
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“Here γ is the gravitational slip parameter, equal to unity in general relativity [22–25], and cκ is the ratio between the Weyl potential and the Newtonian potential Ψ.”
Universality of the halo mass function in modified gravity cosmologies
Gupta, S., Hellwing, W. A., Bilicki, M., & García-Farieta, J. E. (2022) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.105.043538 · Cited by 19
Observational constraints on the interacting dark energy — Dark matter (IDM) cosmological models
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Scalar field dark matter and dark energy: a hybrid model for the dark sector
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“[2] and [3] for references and overviews.”
Cosmological Information from the Small-scale Redshift-space Distortion
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“This idea gave rise to the modified gravity theories, which realize the same redshift–distance relation as that of the ΛCDM model without relying on dark energy but predict a different gravitational growth history of the matter content of the universe (Joyce et al. 2016; Koyama 2016).”
MethodNon-minimal tinges of Unimodular Gravity
Herrero-Valea, M., & Santos-Garcia, R. (2020) · Journal of High Energy Physics · doi:10.1007/jhep09(2020)041 · Cited by 23
“[3, 4] and references therein), but so far we do not have any clear experimental signature that favours one or another.”
BackgroundExploring the new Tsallis agegraphic dark energy with interaction through statefinder
Srivastava, S., Sharma, U. K., & Dubey, V. C. (2021) · General Relativity and Gravitation · doi:10.1007/s10714-021-02818-y · Cited by 18
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Constraints on Cosmological Parameters with a Sample of Type Ia Supernovae from JWST
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“…into dark energy models if a new form of matter has been considered—mathematically, the right side of the Einstein equations is modified, and modified gravity models, if a new form of force has been added—mathematically the left side of the Einstein equations, is modified (Joyce et al. 2016).”
BackgroundThe non-relativistic geometric trinity of gravity
Wolf, W. J., Read, J. A. M., & Vigneron, Q. (2024) · General Relativity and Gravitation · doi:10.1007/s10714-024-03308-7 · Cited by 36
“Taking the non-relativistic limit of (12) then leads to: These are the field equations of STGR in the non-relativistic limit, expressing gravity in terms of non-metricity—we take them to be the field equations of SNGT.”
García-Quintero, C., Ishak, M., Fox, L., & Lin, W. (2019) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.100.123538 · Cited by 18
Numerical solutions to Einstein’s equations in a shearing-dust universe: a code comparison
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Combining cosmological and local bounds on bimetric theory
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“Therefore, it is worth investigating theories beyond the standard model of cosmology, which modify the gravitational theory or replace the cosmological constant by some dark energy [23].”
BackgroundMICROSCOPE’s constraint on a short-range fifth force
Bergé, J., Pernot-Borràs, M., Uzan, J., Brax, P., Chhun, R., Métris, G., Rodrigues, M., & Touboul, P. (2022) · Classical and Quantum Gravity · doi:10.1088/1361-6382/abe142 · Cited by 18
Dark Energy and Spacetime Symmetry
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Cosmological Constraints from Low-Redshift Data
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Traversable Lorentzian wormholes in higher dimensional theories of gravity
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“By adding additional generally covariant terms that vanish in a local inertial frame, modified theories may be derived that typically break the strong equivalence principle (Joyce et al., 2016).”
BackgroundMeasuring the cosmic expansion rate using 21-cm velocity acoustic oscillations
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Phase space analysis of the bouncing universe with stringy effects
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Promising stabs in the Dark: theory virtues and pursuit-worthiness in the Dark Energy problem
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“In conclusion, we concur with Durrer and Maartens (2008b, p. 9): “(q)uintessence models do not seem more natural, better motivated or less contrived than ΛCDM.”
InfluentialLarge-scale structure in mimetic Horndeski gravity
Arroja, F. M. A., Okumura, T., Bartolo, N., Karmakar, P., & Matarrese, S. (2018) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2018/05/050 · Cited by 16
Levshakov, S. A., Ng, K., Henkel, C., Mookerjea, B., Agafonova, I. I., Liu, S.-Y., & Wang, W.-H. (2019) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stz1628 · Cited by 16
Numerical solutions to Einstein’s equations in a shearing-dust universe: a code comparison
Adamek, J., Barrera-Hinojosa, C., Bruni, M., Li, B., Macpherson, H. J., & Mertens, J. B. (2020) · Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) · doi:10.5167/uzh-201971 · Cited by 16
Testing f ( R ) -gravity models with DESI DR2 2025-BAO and other cosmological data
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Seeking new physics in cosmology with Bayesian neural networks: Dark energy and modified gravity
Mancarella, M., Kennedy, J., Bose, B., & Lombriser, L. (2022) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.105.023531 · Cited by 17
“A principal pursuit of contemporary cosmology is therefore to stringently compare both GR and ΛCDM against a considerable collection of alternative models [1–7].”
BackgroundSelf-citationEffect of particle spin on trajectory deflection and gravitational lensing
Zhang, Z., Fan, G., & Jia, J. (2022) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2022/09/061 · Cited by 15
“GL can be used not only to measure the Hubble constant [2, 3] and map the mass of superclusters [4, 5], but also to explore dark energy and test new gravitational theories [6, 7].”
BackgroundLombriser, L. (2023) · Classical and Quantum Gravity · doi:10.1088/1361-6382/acdb41 · Cited by 15
Self-citationCosmological Probes of Structure Growth and Tests of Gravity
Hou, J., Bautista, J., Berti, M., Cuesta-Lazaro, C., Hernández‐Aguayo, C., Tröster, T., & Zheng, J. (2023) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe9070302 · Cited by 15
“9 The authors of [11] worked in the unit c = h̄ = 1, and we restored the c in the equation.”
BackgroundWhite dwarfs in regularized 4D Einstein-Gauss-Bonnet gravity
Pretel, J. M. Z., Tangphati, T., Sakallı, İ., & Banerjee, A. (2025) · Physics Letters B · doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2025.139581 · Cited by 15
Growth of perturbations in nonlocal gravity with non- ΛCDM background
Park, S., & Shafieloo, A. (2017) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.95.064061 · Cited by 15
Renevey, C., Kennedy, J., & Lombriser, L. (2020) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2020/12/032 · Cited by 15
“[28–30]) have led theorists to study a variety of alternative scenarios to explain the underlying mechanism behind cosmic acceleration [14, 21].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationParameterised post-Newtonian expansion in screened regions
McManus, R., Lombriser, L., & Peñarrubia, J. (2017) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2017/12/031 · Cited by 20
Self-citationParametrizations for tests of gravity
Lombriser, L. (2018) · International Journal of Modern Physics D · doi:10.1142/s0218271818480024 · Cited by 16
Self-citationCosmological evolution of viable models in the generalized scalar-tensor theory
Arai, S., Karmakar, P., & Nishizawa, A. (2020) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.102.024003 · Cited by 15
Using machine learning to compress the matter transfer function T(k)
Orjuela-Quintana, J. B., Nesseris, S., & Cardona, W. (2023) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.107.083520 · Cited by 14
Lu, J., Yang, S., Liu, Y., Zhang, Y., & Liu, Y. (2024) · The European Physical Journal Plus · doi:10.1140/epjp/s13360-024-05093-3 · Cited by 14
“Physicists attempt to solve the related problems existing in GR by modifying the gravitational theory [2–4].”
MethodTesting Yukawa cosmology at the Milky Way and M31 galactic scales
D’Agostino, R., Jusufi, K., & Capozzıello, S. (2024) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-024-12741-6 · Cited by 14
Dinda, B. R. (2024) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-024-12774-x · Cited by 14
Discriminating interacting dark energy models using Statefinder diagnostic
Carrasco, R., Rincón, Á., Saavedra, J., & Videla, N. (2024) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-024-12733-6 · Cited by 14
Vogt, S. M. L., Bocquet, S., Davies, C. T., Mohr, J. J., & Schmidt, F. (2024) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.109.123503 · Cited by 14
Self-citationDark sector evolution in Horndeski models
Pace, F., Battye, R. A., Bolliet, B., & Trinh, D. (2019) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2019/09/018 · Cited by 14
Indra: a public computationally accessible suite of cosmological N-body simulations
Falck, B., Wang, J., Jenkins, A. R., Lemson, G., Medvedev, D., Neyrinck, M. C., & Szalay, A. S. (2021) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stab1823 · Cited by 14
Dark matter halo sparsity of modified gravity scenarios
Corasaniti, P.-S., Giocoli, C., & Baldi, M. (2020) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.102.043501 · Cited by 14
Dynamical description of a quintom cosmological model nonminimally coupled with gravity
Marciu, M. (2020) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-020-08476-9 · Cited by 13
Saha, S., & Chattopadhyay, S. (2023) · Universe · doi:10.3390/universe9030136 · Cited by 13
Kaczmarek, A. Z., Rosa, J. L., & Szczęśniak, D. (2025) · The European Physical Journal C · doi:10.1140/epjc/s10052-025-13919-2 · Cited by 18
Local self-tuning mechanism for the cosmological constant
Blanco, D. S., & Lombriser, L. (2020) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.102.043506 · Cited by 13
Self-citationProbing gravity with redshift-space distortions: Effects of tracer bias and sample selection
García-Farieta, J. E., Hellwing, W. A., Gupta, S., & Bilicki, M. (2021) · Physical review. D/Physical review. D. · doi:10.1103/physrevd.103.103524 · Cited by 13
Measuring the distortion of time with relativistic effects in large-scale structure
Blanco, D. S., & Bonvin, C. (2022) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society Letters · doi:10.1093/mnrasl/slac124 · Cited by 18
Environmental screening of dark matter haloes inf(R) gravity
Shi, D., Li, B., & Han, J. (2017) · Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society · doi:10.1093/mnras/stx865 · Cited by 13
Whether Lyra’s Manifold Itself is aHidden Source of Dark Energy
Singh, K. P., Singh, K. M., & Mollah, M. R. (2017) · International Journal of Theoretical Physics · doi:10.1007/s10773-017-3417-4 · Cited by 13
Tackling non-linearities with the effective field theory of dark energy and modified gravity
Frusciante, N., & Papadomanolakis, G. (2017) · Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics · doi:10.1088/1475-7516/2017/12/014 · Cited by 13
Metadata
- Authors
- Joyce, A., Lombriser, L., & Schmidt, F.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Royal Observatory (GB)
- Max Planck Institute for Astrophysics (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Schmidt, Fabian
- Venue
- Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2016-10-19
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 95-122
- ISSN
- 0163-8998 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-4134
- OpenAlex
- W2253235198
- Cited by
- 463
- References
- 158
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 46 · 2022: 37 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 52 · 2019: 46 · 2018: 43 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 8
- FWCI
- 3.45
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Astronomy and Astrophysics › Cosmology and Gravitation Theories
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Noncommutative and Quantum Gravity Theories
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Nuclear and High Energy Physics › Dark Matter and Cosmic Phenomena
- Keywords
- dark energy, modified gravity, cosmic acceleration, equivalence principle, strong equivalence principle, weak equivalence principle, cosmological models, observational signatures
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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