The DOI matches its Crossref record; 105 of the 105 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The haves, the have-nots, and the health of everyone: the relationship between social inequality and environmental quality.
Open accessAbstract
A growing body of literature suggests that more unequal societies have more polluted and degraded environments, perhaps helping explain why more unequal societies are often less healthy. We summarize the mechanisms by which inequality can lead to environmental degradation and their relevance for public health. We review the evidence of a relationship between environmental quality and social inequality along the axes of income, wealth, political power, and race and ethnicity. Our review suggests that the evidence is strongest for air- and water-quality measures that have more immediate health implications; evidence is less strong for more dispersed pollutants that have longer-term health impacts. More attention should be paid in research and in practice to links among inequality, the environment, and health, including more within-country studies that may elucidate causal pathways and points of intervention. We synthesize common metrics of inequality and methodological considerations in an effort to bring cohesion to such efforts.
Overview
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“The current increased risk for wildfires in California and other areas around the world is anticipated to result in exposures to high concentrations of air pollution, even in regions where background levels are usually low.63,64”
From Association of Wildfire Air Pollution and Health Care Use for Atopic Dermatitis and Itch (2021) · cites this paper as [63]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Citations
Cites
Capital in the Twenty-First Century
Piketty, T. (2014) · doi:10.4159/9780674369542 · Cited by 14,437
Olson, M. (1965) · doi:10.4159/9780674041660 · Cited by 14,191
Sufrin, S. C., & Olson, M. (1966) · Industrial and Labor Relations Review · doi:10.2307/2521228 · Cited by 11,583
The Theory of the Leisure Class
Veblen, T. B., & Mills, C. W. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/owc/9780199552580.001.0001 · Cited by 5,329
The rise and fall of the Environmental Kuznets Curve
Stern, D. I. (2004) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2004.03.004 · Cited by 4,013
Social capital, income inequality, and mortality.
Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. P., Lochner, K., & Prothrow-Stith, D. (1997) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.87.9.1491 · Cited by 3,212
Where is the land of Opportunity? The Geography of Intergenerational Mobility in the United States *
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Kline, P., & Saez, E. (2014) · The Quarterly Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/qje/qju022 · Cited by 2,922
The Moral Foundations of Trust
Uslaner, E. M. (2001) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511614934 · Cited by 2,878
Elinor Ostrom, B. (2010) · Public Administration Issues · doi:10.17323/1999-5431-2010-0-1-5-52 · Cited by 2,816
Top Incomes in the Long Run of History
Atkinson, A. B., Piketty, T., & Saez, E. (2011) · Journal of Economic Literature · doi:10.1257/jel.49.1.3 · Cited by 2,362
The Moral Foundations of TrustPreprint
Uslaner, E. M. (2005) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.824504 · Cited by 2,069
Income inequality and population health: A review and explanation of the evidence
Wilkinson, R. G., & Pickett, K. E. (2005) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2005.08.036 · Cited by 1,786
Mohai, P., Pellow, D. N., & Roberts, J. T. (2009) · Annual Review of Environment and Resources · doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-082508-094348 · Cited by 1,668
Tracking Democracy's Third Wave with the Polity III Data
Jaggers, K., & Gurr, T. R. (1995) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343395032004007 · Cited by 1,332
Income, inequality, and pollution: a reassessment of the environmental Kuznets Curve
Torras, M., & Boyce, J. K. (1998) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(97)00177-8 · Cited by 1,326
Is Income Inequality a Determinant of Population Health? Part 1. A Systematic Review
Lynch, J. W., Smith, G. D., Harper, S. B., Hillemeier, M. M., Ross, N. A., Kaplan, G. A., & Wolfson, M. C. (2004) · Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.0887-378x.2004.00302.x · Cited by 949
Fujiwara, T., & Kawachi, I. I. (2008) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2008.04.015 · Cited by 936
Income Inequality and Health: What Have We Learned So Far?
Subramanian, S. V. (2004) · Epidemiologic Reviews · doi:10.1093/epirev/mxh003 · Cited by 901
Reexamining the Empirical Evidence for an Environmental Kuznets Curve
Harbaugh, W. T., Levinson, A. M., & Wilson, D. (2002) · The Review of Economics and Statistics · doi:10.1162/003465302320259538 · Cited by 824
What Have We Learned About Generalized Trust, If Anything?
Nannestad, P. (2008) · Annual Review of Political Science · doi:10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.060606.135412 · Cited by 773
Income inequality, mortality, and self rated health: meta-analysis of multilevel studies
Kondo, N., Sembajwe, G. N., Kawachi, I. I., van Dam, R. M., Subramanian, S. V., & Yamagata, Z. (2009) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.b4471 · Cited by 741
Inequality as a cause of environmental degradation
Boyce, J. K. (1994) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/0921-8009(94)90198-8 · Cited by 717
To buy or not to buy? A social dilemma perspective on green buying
Gupta, S., & Ogden, D. T. (2009) · Journal of Consumer Marketing · doi:10.1108/07363760910988201 · Cited by 659
The Revolt of the Elites and the Betrayal of Democracy.
Burris, V., & Lasch, C. (1995) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2076678 · Cited by 556
Divided we stand: why inequality keeps rising
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.49-6991 · Cited by 507
Characteristics, Causes, and Effects of Sprawl: A Literature Review
Ewing, R. H. (2008) · Urban Ecology · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73412-5_34 · Cited by 485
The Environmental Kuznets Curve, environmental protection policy and income distribution
Magnani, E. (2000) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(99)00115-9 · Cited by 466
Environmental Kuznets curves—real progress or passing the buck?
Rothman, D. S. (1998) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(97)00179-1 · Cited by 462
Morello-Frosch, R. A., & Jesdale, B. M. (2005) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.8500 · Cited by 461
Self-citationFreedom, growth, and the environment
Barrett, S. A., & Graddy, K. (2000) · Environment and Development Economics · doi:10.1017/s1355770x00000267 · Cited by 450
Democracy and environmental quality
Farzin, Y. H., & Bond, C. A. (2005) · Journal of Development Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.04.003 · Cited by 448
Peluso, N. L. (1993) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/0959-3780(93)90006-7 · Cited by 446
Effects of political institutions on air quality
Bernauer, T., & Koubi, V. (2008) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.09.003 · Cited by 443
Emulation, Inequality, and Work Hours: Was Thorsten Veblen Right?
Bowles, S., & Park, Y. (2005) · The Economic Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0297.2005.01042.x · Cited by 439
Carbon emissions and income inequality
Ravallion, M. D. (2000) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/52.4.651 · Cited by 405
Kawachi, I. I., Subramanian, S. V., & Kim, D. J. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-71311-3_1 · Cited by 403
Income inequality and the environment: aggregation bias in environmental Kuznets curves
Heerink, N., Mulatu, A., & Bulte, E. (2001) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(01)00171-9 · Cited by 400
(1985) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.2307/1956375 · Cited by 364
Morello-Frosch, R. A., & Lopez, R. P. (2006) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2006.05.007 · Cited by 363
Self-citationPolitical and economic inequality and the environment
Scruggs, L. A. (1998) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(97)00118-3 · Cited by 353
Jesdale, B. M., Morello-Frosch, R. A., & Cushing, L. J. (2013) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.1205919 · Cited by 338
Self-citationAssessing evidence of environmental inequities: A meta-analysis
Ringquist, E. J. (2005) · Journal of Policy Analysis and Management · doi:10.1002/pam.20088 · Cited by 333
Delhey, J., & Dragolov, G. (2013) · European Sociological Review · doi:10.1093/esr/jct033 · Cited by 325
Where is the Land of Opportunity? The Geography of Intergenerational Mobility in the United States
Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Kline, P., & Saez, E. (2014) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w19843 · Cited by 321
Knight, K. W., Rosa, E. A., & Schor, J. B. (2013) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.02.017 · Cited by 310
Roux, A. V. D. (2004) · Epidemiologic Reviews · doi:10.1093/epirev/mxh006 · Cited by 308
Uslaner, E. M. (2000) · Political Science Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2657610 · Cited by 294
The Health of Nations: Why Inequality Is Harmful to Your Health
Kawachi, I., & Kennedy, B. P. (2002) · DigitalGeorgetown (Georgetown University Library) · Cited by 291
Carbon dioxide emission and income: A temporal analysis of cross-country distributional patterns
Coondoo, D., & Dinda, S. (2007) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2007.07.001 · Cited by 276
Conceptual Approaches to the Study of Health Disparities
Roux, A. V. D. (2012) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031811-124534 · Cited by 259
Environmentalism, democracy, and pollution control
Fredriksson, P. G., Neumayer, E., Damania, R., & Gates, S. (2004) · Journal of Environmental Economics and Management · doi:10.1016/j.jeem.2004.04.004 · Cited by 238
Inequality and public good provision: An experimental analysis
Anderson, L. R., Mellor, J. M., & Milyo, J. D. (2007) · The Journal of Socio-Economics · doi:10.1016/j.socec.2006.12.073 · Cited by 229
Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties
House, F. (2017) · The SHAFR Guide Online · doi:10.1163/2468-1733_shafr_sim300040004 · Cited by 229
Mind the Gap: Hierarchies, Health, and Human Evolution
Wilkinson, R. G. (2001) · Cited by 223
Pastor, M., Morello-Frosch, R. A., & Sadd, J. L. (2005) · Journal of Urban Affairs · doi:10.1111/j.0735-2166.2005.00228.x · Cited by 222
Self-citationPower distribution, the environment, and public health: A state-level analysis
Boyce, J. K., Klemer, A. R., Templet, P. H., & Willis, C. E. (1999) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(98)00056-1 · Cited by 202
A time use perspective on the materials intensity of consumption
Jalas, M. (2002) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/s0921-8009(02)00018-6 · Cited by 187
A Social Dilemma Analysis of Commuting Preferences: The Roles of Social Value Orientation and Trust1
Lange, P. A. M. V., van Vugt, M., Meertens, R. M., & Ruiter, R. A. C. (1998) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1998.tb01732.x · Cited by 165
Economic Inequality Predicts Biodiversity Loss
Mikkelson, G. M., Gonzalez, A., & Peterson, G. (2007) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000444 · Cited by 164
The environmental Kuznets curve for US counties: A spatial econometric analysis with extensions
Rupasingha, A., Goetz, S. J., Debertin, D. L., & Pagoulatos, A. (2004) · Papers of the Regional Science Association · doi:10.1007/s10110-004-0199-x · Cited by 161
Income inequality and the development of environmental technologies
Vona, F., & Patriarca, F. (2011) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.06.027 · Cited by 160
Social Capital and National Environmental Performance: A Cross-Sectional Analysis
Grafton, R. Q., & Knowles, S. (2004) · The Journal of Environment & Development · doi:10.1177/1070496504271417 · Cited by 147
A Cross‐National Analysis of How Economic Inequality Predicts Biodiversity Loss
Holland, T. G., Peterson, G., & Gonzalez, A. (2009) · Conservation Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2009.01207.x · Cited by 146
Duffy, R. (2010) · Yale University Press eBooks · doi:10.2307/j.ctt5vkt2w · Cited by 144
The environmental Kuznets curve for US counties: A spatial econometric analysis with extensions
Rupasingha, A., Goetz, S. J., Debertin, D. L., et al. (2004) · Papers of the Regional Science Association · doi:10.1111/j.1435-5597.2004.tb01915.x · Cited by 127
A household level environmental Kuznets curve
Kahn, M. E. (1998) · Economics Letters · doi:10.1016/s0165-1765(98)00035-4 · Cited by 116
Explaining large- N cooperation: Generalized social trust and the social exchange heuristic
Sønderskov, K. M. (2011) · Rationality and Society · doi:10.1177/1043463110396058 · Cited by 110
Determinants of pollution: what do we really know?
Gassebner, M., Lamla, M. J., & Sturm, J. (2010) · Oxford Economic Papers · doi:10.1093/oep/gpq029 · Cited by 99
Duffy, R. V. (2017) · Yale University Press eBooks · doi:10.12987/9780300154351 · Cited by 99
Hours of work and the ecological footprint of nations: an exploratory analysis
Hayden, A., & Shandra, J. M. (2009) · Local Environment · doi:10.1080/13549830902904185 · Cited by 97
Frameworks and theories of environmental change
Ostrom, E. (2008) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.01.001 · Cited by 91
Long-run determinants of pollution: A robustness analysis
Lamla, M. J. (2009) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2009.08.002 · Cited by 90
Deforestation, distribution and development
Koop, G. M., & Tole, L. (2001) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/s0959-3780(00)00057-1 · Cited by 88
Duro, J. A. (2012) · Ecological Economics · doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.12.019 · Cited by 87
Incorporating concepts of inequality and inequity into health benefits analysis
Levy, J. I., Chemerynski, S., & Tuchmann, J. L. (2006) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/1475-9276-5-2 · Cited by 83
Frank, R. H. (2013) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781400844982 · Cited by 77
Levy, J. I., Wilson, A., & Zwack, L. M. (2007) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.9712 · Cited by 76
Clément, M., & Meunié, A. (2010) · Review of Social Economy · doi:10.1080/00346760903480590 · Cited by 73
Combined inequality in wealth and risk leads to disaster in the climate change game
Burton-Chellew, M. N., May, R. M., & West, S. A. (2013) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-013-0856-7 · Cited by 72
Impact of Income Inequality on Health: Does Environment Quality Matter?
Drabo, A. (2011) · Environment and Planning A Economy and Space · doi:10.1068/a43307 · Cited by 71
Trust, Culture, and Cooperation: A Social Dilemma Analysis of Pro-Environmental Behaviors
Irwin, K., & Berigan, N. (2013) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1111/tsq.12029 · Cited by 67
Is Environmental Justice Good for White Folks? Industrial Air Toxics Exposure in Urban A merica
Ash, M., Boyce, J. K., Chang, G., et al. (2012) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2012.00874.x · Cited by 67
Mind the gap—hierarchies, health and human evolution
Mackenbach, J. P. (2002) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/31.3.684 · Cited by 66
Working Hours and Sustainable Development
Devetter, F., & Rousseau, S. (2011) · Review of Social Economy · doi:10.1080/00346764.2011.563507 · Cited by 61
Environmental group membership, collective action and generalised trust
Sønderskov, K. M. (2008) · Environmental Politics · doi:10.1080/09644010701811673 · Cited by 56
Evaluating Efficiency‐Equality Tradeoffs for Mobile Source Control Strategies in an Urban Area
Levy, J. I., Greco, S. L., Melly, S. J., & Mukhi, N. (2008) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2008.01119.x · Cited by 54
RELIEF FOR THE ENVIRONMENT? THE IMPORTANCE OF AN INCREASINGLY UNIMPORTANT INDUSTRIAL SECTOR
Gassebner, M., Gaston, N. G., & Lamla, M. J. (2007) · Economic Inquiry · doi:10.1111/j.1465-7295.2007.00086.x · Cited by 50
EFFECT OF INCOME DISTRIBUTION ON THE ENVIRONMENTAL KUZNETS CURVE
Qu, B., & Zhang, Y. (2011) · Pacific Economic Review · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0106.2011.00552.x · Cited by 38
Collective action for forest conservation: Does heterogeneity matter?Preprint
Somanathan, E., Rajagopal, P., & Mehta, B. S. (2002) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · Cited by 37
Economic inequality and the environment
Slottje, D. J., Nieswiadomy, M., & Redfearn, M. R. (2001) · Environmental Modelling & Software · doi:10.1016/s1364-8152(00)00081-5 · Cited by 34
Janssen, M. A., & Остром, Э. (2007) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9780691187389-005 · Cited by 29
Inequality, Social Respectability, Political Power, and Environmental Devastation
Wisman, J. D. (2011) · Journal of Economic Issues · doi:10.2753/jei0021-3624450407 · Cited by 29
Economic well-being, the distribution of income and species imperilment
Pandit, R., & Laband, D. N. (2009) · Biodiversity and Conservation · doi:10.1007/s10531-009-9638-y · Cited by 27
Income and Power Inequality as Determinants of Environmental and Health Outcomes: Some Findings*
Torras, M. (2005) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.0038-4941.2005.00350.x · Cited by 25
Inequality, social respectability, political power and environmental devatstation
Wisman, J. D. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.17606/htj8-q983 · Cited by 21
Class and Environmental History: Lessons from “The War in the Adirondacks”
Jacoby, K. (1997) · Environmental History · doi:10.2307/3985353 · Cited by 21
Matthews, T. L. (2010) · Sociological Spectrum · doi:10.1080/02732173.2011.525696 · Cited by 20
Equity and sustainability: An empirical analysis
Templet, P. H. (1995) · Society & Natural Resources · doi:10.1080/08941929509380941 · Cited by 17
Torras, M. (2006) · International Review of Applied Economics · doi:10.1080/02692170500362199 · Cited by 11
Inequality and Trust: Testing a Mediating Relationship for Environmental Sustainability
Kemp-Benedict, E. J. (2013) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su5020779 · Cited by 11
Cross-country income disparity and its effect on carbon emissions
Guo, L. (2013) · Chinese Journal of Population Resources and Environment · doi:10.1080/10042857.2013.777208 · Cited by 11
Determinants of futures-oriented environmental policies: A multi-country analysis
Tonn, B. E. (2007) · Futures · doi:10.1016/j.futures.2006.12.002 · Cited by 9
CHAPTER 9. Collective Action for Forest Conservation: Does Heterogeneity Matter?
Somanatban, E., Rajagopal, P., & Mehta, B. S. (2007) · Princeton University Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9780691187389-010 · Cited by 5
Coercive conservation, defensive reaction, and the commons tragedy in Northeast Thailand
Matsumura, M. (1994) · Habitat International · doi:10.1016/0197-3975(94)90008-6 · Cited by 3
Desigualdad y política ambiental en México
Nolen, E. C. J., Medina, D. C. T., & García, M. D. P. R. (2012) · Economía mexicana. Nueva época · Cited by 1
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- Anderson LR, 2008, J. Socioecon., 37, 1010
- Jáuregui Nolen J, 2012, Econ. Mex. Nueva Época, 21, 251
- OECD (Organ. Econ. Coop. Dev.), 2014, United States: Tackling High Inequalities and Creating Opportunities for All.
- 10.2307/2585925 · DOI
- Stern DI, 2004, World Dev., 49, 431
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Association of Wildfire Air Pollution and Health Care Use for Atopic Dermatitis and Itch
Fadadu, R. P., Grimes, B., Jewell, N. P., Vargo, J., Young, A. T., Abuabara, K., Balmes, J. R., & Wei, M. L. (2021) · JAMA Dermatology · doi:10.1001/jamadermatol.2021.0179 · Cited by 120
Caunca, M. R., Odden, M. C., Glymour, M. M., Elfassy, T., Kershaw, K. N., Sidney, S., Yaffe, K., Launer, L., & Zeki Al Hazzouri, A. (2020) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2020.0860 · Cited by 73
A framework for contextualizing social‐ecological biases in contributory science data
Carlen, E. J., Estien, C. O., Caspi, T., Perkins, D., Goldstein, B. R., Kreling, S. E. S., Hentati, Y., Williams, T. D., Stanton, L. A., Des Roches, S., et al. (2024) · People and Nature · doi:10.1002/pan3.10592 · Cited by 57
Metadata
- Authors
- Cushing, L., Morello-Frosch, R., Wander, M., & Pastor, M.
- Affiliations
- Energy and Resources Group;
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Public Health
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2015-03-18
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 193-209
- ISSN
- 0163-7525 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2093
- OpenAlex
- W2161874839
- Cited by
- 304
- References
- 105
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 6.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Annual Review of Public Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (91744701)
- W.K. Kellogg Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Environmental Justice and Health Disparities
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Health › Public Health and Social Inequalities
- Keywords
- social inequality, environmental quality, environmental degradation, income inequality, wealth inequality, political power, race and ethnicity, air quality, water quality, environmental justice, health disparities
- MeSH terms
- Environment, Environmental Health, Humans, Socioeconomic Factors
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
