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Social Status and Health in Humans and Other Animals
Abstract
▪ Abstract Dominance hierarchies exist in numerous social species, and rank in such hierarchies can dramatically influence the quality of an individual's life. Rank can dramatically influence also the health of an individual, particularly with respect to stress-related disease. This chapter reviews first the nature of stress, the stress-response and stress-related disease, as well as the varieties of hierarchical systems in animals. I then review the literature derived from nonhuman species concerning the connections between rank and functioning of the adrenocortical, cardiovascular, reproductive, and immune systems. As shown here, the relationship is anything but monolithic. Finally, I consider whether rank is a relevant concept in humans and argue that socioeconomic status (SES) is the nearest human approximation to social rank and that SES dramatically influences health.
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“According to social status research, when individuals are afforded positive status within their cultural institutions, institutions protect against stress and support health (Demakakos et al., 2008; Hatzenbuehler et al., 2013; Sapolsky, 2004). But when institutions relegate individuals into lower statuses, institutions generate stress and derail health (Adler, 2009; Sapolsky, 2004).”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Sapolsky, 2004
In the citing paper
“For example, Sapolsky’s review of social status and health showed that forced subordination by dominant individuals within social hierarchies inhibits subordinates’ health by imposing physical and psychological stressors and resource inequities on subordinates; which may be perpetuated through unequal institutionalized policies/actions including denial of flexible resources (Link and Phelan, 1995)”
From Cultural trauma as a fundamental cause of health disparities (2022) · cites this paper as Sapolsky, 2004
In the citing paper
“Although social subordination is not always associated with physiological indices of stress, it usually involves exposure to high rates of physical and psychological stressors, a tendency toward chronic activation of the stress response, and increased risk for stress-related diseases such as diabetes, heart disease and psychiatric disorders (Sapolsky, 2004).”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Sapolsky, 2004
In the citing paper
“Consequently, having a subordinate social position is associated with immunosuppression (that is, a body's decreased ability to ward off infections) and an increased risk for cardiovascular disease.”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Sapolsky, 2004
In the citing paper
“The idea that a person's social status or social rank is strongly associated with his or her health status has been asserted and examined for decades.”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Sapolsky, 2004
In the citing paper
“Studies with humans and nonhuman species have found that those with a lower social position in their society experience excessive and persistent stress levels, exhibit stress-related pathologies (for example, depression and hypertension), and display higher morbidity and mortality than those with a higher social standing (Sapolsky, 2004).”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Sapolsky, 2004
In the citing paper
“Studies with humans and nonhuman species have found that those with a lower social position in their society experience excessive and persistent stress levels, exhibit stress-related pathologies (for example, depression and hypertension), and display higher morbidity and mortality than those with a higher social standing (Sapolsky, 2004).”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Sapolsky, 2004
In the citing paper
“Studies with humans and nonhuman species have found that those with a lower social position in their society experience excessive and persistent stress levels, exhibit stress-related pathologies (for example, depression and hypertension), and display higher morbidity and mortality than those with a higher social standing (Sapolsky, 2004).”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Sapolsky, 2004
In the citing paper
“An individual's interpretation of the stressor (for example, others don't value my ethnic group) can chronically activate the body's stress response system and thereby increase his or her risk for stress-related disorders (Sapolsky, 2004).”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Sapolsky, 2004
In the citing paper
“What is interesting is that when you add social inequality (for example, unequal distribution of wealth or political influence in the larger society) to a low SES, the health outcomes and mortality rates are worse than when you consider poverty in the absence of social inequality.”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Sapolsky (2004)
In the citing paper
“Sapolsky's (2004) work illustrates that as individuals fall toward the lower socioeconomic strata their risk for morbidity and mortality increases.”
From Social Justice as a Public Health Imperative for Kānaka Maoli (2009) · cites this paper as Sapolsky (2004)
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Boyce, C. J., & Brown, G. D. A. (2008) · RePEc: Research Papers in Economics · doi:10.22004/ag.econ.269895 · Cited by 1
Reid, M. (2011) · eScholarship (California Digital Library) · Cited by 1
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Metadata
- Authors
- Sapolsky, R. M.
- Affiliations
- Institute of Primate Research (KE)
- Corresponding author
- Sapolsky, Robert M.
- ORCID
- Sapolsky, Robert M.
- Venue
- Annual Review of Anthropology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2004-10-01
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 393-418
- ISSN
- 0084-6570 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-4290
- OpenAlex
- W2116982066
- Cited by
- 739
- References
- 132
- Citations by year
- 2026: 28 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 44 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 31 · 2012: 34
- FWCI
- 0.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Anthropology (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- John Templeton Foundation
- Harry Frank Guggenheim Foundation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Keywords
- social rank, dominance hierarchy, socioeconomic status, stress, stress response, stress-related disorders, adrenocortical system, cardiovascular system, reproductive system, immune system, human health
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