EXPERT AND EXCEPTIONAL PERFORMANCE: Evidence of Maximal Adaptation to Task Constraints
Abstract
Expert and exceptional performance are shown to be mediated by cognitive and perceptual-motor skills and by domain-specific physiological and anatomical adaptations. The highest levels of human performance in different domains can only be attained after around ten years of extended, daily amounts of deliberate practice activities. Laboratory analyses of expert performance in many domains such as chess, medicine, auditing, computer programming, bridge, physics, sports, typing, juggling, dance, and music reveal maximal adaptations of experts to domain-specific constraints. For example, acquired anticipatory skills circumvent general limits on reaction time, and distinctive memory skills allow a domain-specific expansion of working memory capacity to support planning, reasoning, and evaluation. Many of the mechanisms of superior expert performance serve the dual purpose of mediating experts' current performance and of allowing continued improvement of this performance in response to informative feedback during practice activities.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Subsequent research documented that the increased amount of certain types of practice was correlated with higher levels of attained performance in a wide range of domains.
“Subsequent research documented that the increased amount of certain types of practice was correlated with higher levels of attained performance in a wide range of domains (Ericsson, 1996, 2003, 2007; Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996; Ericsson et al., 2018).”
From Deliberate Practice and Proposed Limits on the Effects of Practice on the Acquisition of Expert Performance: Why the Original Definition Matters and Recommendations for Future Research (2019) · cites this paper as Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996
Elite performers often attain highest performance between ages 15 and 40.
“elite performers often attain the highest performance of their careers sometime between ages 15 and 40 (Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996; Haugen et al., 2018).”
From Deliberate Practice and Proposed Limits on the Effects of Practice on the Acquisition of Expert Performance: Why the Original Definition Matters and Recommendations for Future Research (2019) · cites this paper as Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996
Development of elite performance may span 5-30 years.
“In most domains of expertise the development of elite performance may span a period of 5–30 years”
From Deliberate Practice and Proposed Limits on the Effects of Practice on the Acquisition of Expert Performance: Why the Original Definition Matters and Recommendations for Future Research (2019) · cites this paper as Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996
Extensive experience in a domain is necessary to reach very high levels of performance.
“First and foremost, extensive experience of activi- ties in a domain is necessary to reach very high levels of performance.”
From The Influence of Experience and Deliberate Practice on the Development of Superior Expert Performance (2006) · cites this paper as Ericsson & Lehmann, 1996
Cites
The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information.
Miller, G. A. (1956) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0043158 · Cited by 17,812 · see citing works
The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.3.363 · Cited by 9,564 · see citing works
Self-citation“Clinical versus Actuarial Judgment.”
Dawes, R. M., Faust, D., & Meehl, P. E. (1989) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2648573 · Cited by 2,298 · see citing works
Chunking in recall of symbolic drawings
Egan, D. E., & Schwartz, B. J. (1979) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03197595 · Cited by 482 · see citing works
Digit memory of grand experts in abacus-derived mental calculation
Hatano, G., & Osawa, K. (1983) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/0010-0277(83)90035-5 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000) · Handbook of Self-Regulation · doi:10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50031-7 · Cited by 6,069 · see citing works
Barry Issenberg, S., Mcgaghie, W. C., Petrusa, E. R., Lee Gordon, D., & Scalese, R. J. (2005) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/01421590500046924 · Cited by 3,966 · see citing works
Ericsson, K. A. (2004) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00001888-200410001-00022 · Cited by 2,988 · see citing works
Self-citationVanLEHN, K. (2011) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2011.611369 · Cited by 2,323 · see citing works
Managerial cognitive capabilities and the microfoundations of dynamic capabilities
Helfat, C. E., & Peteraf, M. A. (2015) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.2247 · Cited by 2,056 · see citing works
Deliberate practice and acquisition of expert performance: a general overview
Anders Ericsson, K. (2008) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/j.1553-2712.2008.00227.x · Cited by 1,827 · see citing works
Self-citationEricsson, K. A. (2006) · The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816796.038 · Cited by 1,629 · see citing works
Self-citationLIFESPAN PSYCHOLOGY: Theory and Application to Intellectual Functioning
Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.471 · Cited by 1,281 · see citing works
Workplace participatory practices: Conceptualising workplaces as learning environments
Billett, S. (2004) · Journal of Workplace Learning · doi:10.1108/13665620410550295 · Cited by 765 · see citing works
Ægisdóttir, S., White, M. J., Spengler, P. M., Maugherman, A. S., Anderson, L. A., Cook, R. S., Nichols, C. N., Lampropoulos, G. K., Walker, B. S., Cohen, G., et al. (2006) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000005285875 · Cited by 737 · see citing works
Gegenfurtner, A., Lehtinen, E., & Säljö, R. (2011) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-011-9174-7 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
Ericsson, K. A. (2015) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000000939 · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Self-citationMaintaining excellence: Deliberate practice and elite performance in young and older pianists.
Krampe, R. T., & Ericsson, K. A. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.125.4.331 · Cited by 540 · see citing works
Self-citationToward a Workplace Pedagogy: Guidance, Participation, and Engagement
Billett, S. (2002) · Adult Education Quarterly · doi:10.1177/074171302237202 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Plant, E. A., Ericsson, K. A., Hill, L., & Asberg, K. (2005) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2004.06.001 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
Self-citationEricsson, K. A., & Harwell, K. W. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02396 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
“In most domains of expertise the development of elite performance may span a period of 5–30 years, and elite performers often attain the highest performance of their careers sometime between ages 15 and 40 (Ericsson and Lehmann, 1996; Haugen et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe road to excellence: deliberate practice and the development of expertise.
Ward, P., Hodges, N. J., Starkes, J. L., & Williams, M. A. (2007) · High Ability Studies · doi:10.1080/13598130701709715 · Cited by 353 · see citing works
Key Properties of Expert Movement Systems in Sport: An Ecological Dynamics Perspective
Seifert, L., Button, C., & Davids, K. (2013) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-012-0011-z · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Jäncke, L. (2009) · Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience · doi:10.3233/rnn-2009-0519 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Mental Training as a Tool in the Neuroscientific Study of Brain and Cognitive Plasticity
Slagter, H. A., Davidson, R. J., & Lutz, A. (2011) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00017 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Ericsson, K. A. (2007) · Medical Education · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2923.2007.02946.x · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Self-citationEricsson, K. A. (1998) · High Ability Studies · doi:10.1080/1359813980090106 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
Self-citationMauri, M., Cipresso, P., Balgera, A., Villamira, M., & Riva, G. (2011) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2010.0377 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Domain-Specific Knowledge and Why Teaching Generic Skills Does Not Work
Tricot, A., & Sweller, J. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9243-1 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Characteristics of expert development in rhythmic gymnastics: a retrospective study.
Law, M. P., Côté, J., & Ericsson, K. A. (2007) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2008.9671814 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Self-citationPractice Does Not Make Perfect: No Causal Effect of Music Practice on Music Ability
Mosing, M. A., Madison, G., Pedersen, N. L., Kuja-Halkola, R., & Ullén, F. (2014) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797614541990 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Reconsidering the Trade-off Between Expertise and Flexibility: a Cognitive Entrenchment Perspective
Dane, E. (2010) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.35.4.zok579 · Cited by 603 · see citing works
Students' skills and practices of using ICT: Results of a national assessment in Finland
Hakkarainen, K., Ilomäki, L., Lipponen, L., Muukkonen, H., Rahikainen, M., Tuominen, T., Lakkala, M., & Lehtinen, E. (2000) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/s0360-1315(00)00007-5 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Rethinking expertise: a multifactorial gene–environment interaction model of expert performance.
Ullén, F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Mosing, M. A. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000033 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Ericsson, K. A. (2014) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2013.12.001 · Cited by 178 · see citing works
Self-citationScore gains on g-loaded tests: No g
te Nijenhuis, J., van Vianen, A. E. M., & van der Flier, H. (2007) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.07.006 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Implicit perceptual training: how, when, and why?
Jackson, R. C., & Farrow, D. (2005) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2005.06.003 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
A deliberate practice account of typing proficiency in everyday typists.
Keith, N., & Ericsson, K. A. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.13.3.135 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationLearner regulated knowledge of results during the acquisition of multiple timing goals
Patterson, J. T., & Carter, M. (2010) · Human Movement Science · doi:10.1016/j.humov.2009.12.003 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Thinking forensics: Cognitive science for forensic practitioners
Edmond, G., Towler, A., Growns, B., Ribeiro, G., Found, B., White, D., Ballantyne, K., Searston, R. A., Thompson, M. B., Tangen, J. M., et al. (2017) · Science & Justice · doi:10.1016/j.scijus.2016.11.005 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Chang, W., Chen, E., Mellers, B., & Tetlock, P. (2016) · Judgment and Decision Making · doi:10.1017/s1930297500004599 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“…on individual differences and job performance suggests, for instance, a potential interaction effect between cognitive ability and practice (i.e., repeated execution of the thinking principles relayed didac-tically via training) (Deary, 2000; Ericsson & Lehmann, 1996; Schmidt & Hunter, 2000).”
Energy Management of People in Organizations: A Review and Research Agenda
Schippers, M. C., & Hogenes, R. (2011) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-011-9217-6 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Hoemann, K., Nielson, C., Yuen, A., Gurera, J. W., Quigley, K. S., & Barrett, L. F. (2021) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000327 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
de Bruin, A. B. H., Smits, N., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & Schmidt, H. G. (2008) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1348/000712608x295631 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Nyberg, A. J., Schleicher, D. J., Bell, B. S., Boon, C., Cappelli, P., Collings, D. G., Dalle Molle, J. E., Feuerriegel, S., Gerhart, B., Jeong, Y., et al. (2025) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/01492063251325188 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
The effect of individual and task characteristics on decision aid reliance
Parkes, A. (2017) · Behaviour & Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2016.1209242 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Brain network dynamics during spontaneous strategy shifts and incremental task optimization
Allegra, M., Seyed-Allaei, S., Schuck, N. W., Amati, D., Laio, A., & Reverberi, C. (2020) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.116854 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Forensic DNA Interpretation and Human Factors: Improving the Practice Through a Systems Approach
Taylor, M. K. (2024) · doi:10.6028/nist.ir.8503 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Lay beliefs in moral expertise
Schmittat, S. M., & Burgmer, P. (2020) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2020.1719053 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C.
- Affiliations
- Florida State University (US)
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 1996-02
- Volume
- 47
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 273-305
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- OpenAlex
- W2171680637
- Cited by
- 2,139
- References
- 5
- Citations by year
- 2026: 57 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 89 · 2022: 72 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 98 · 2019: 103 · 2018: 86 · 2017: 85 · 2016: 108 · 2015: 107 · 2014: 109 · 2013: 87 · 2012: 103
- FWCI
- 8.03
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Keywords
- expert performance, exceptional performance, deliberate practice, domain-specific adaptation, perceptual-motor skills, cognitive skills, working memory capacity, reaction time, feedback, skill acquisition, chess
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
