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Sex differences in the physiology of eating
Open accessAbstract
Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis function fundamentally affects the physiology of eating. We review sex differences in the physiological and pathophysiological controls of amounts eaten in rats, mice, monkeys, and humans. These controls result from interactions among genetic effects, organizational effects of reproductive hormones (i.e., permanent early developmental effects), and activational effects of these hormones (i.e., effects dependent on hormone levels). Male-female sex differences in the physiology of eating involve both organizational and activational effects of androgens and estrogens. An activational effect of estrogens decreases eating 1) during the periovulatory period of the ovarian cycle in rats, mice, monkeys, and women and 2) tonically between puberty and reproductive senescence or ovariectomy in rats and monkeys, sometimes in mice, and possibly in women. Estrogens acting on estrogen receptor-α (ERα) in the caudal medial nucleus of the solitary tract appear to mediate these effects in rats. Androgens, prolactin, and other reproductive hormones also affect eating in rats. Sex differences in eating are mediated by alterations in orosensory capacity and hedonics, gastric mechanoreception, ghrelin, CCK, glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), glucagon, insulin, amylin, apolipoprotein A-IV, fatty-acid oxidation, and leptin. The control of eating by central neurochemical signaling via serotonin, MSH, neuropeptide Y, Agouti-related peptide (AgRP), melanin-concentrating hormone, and dopamine is modulated by HPG function. Finally, sex differences in the physiology of eating may contribute to human obesity, anorexia nervosa, and binge eating. The variety and physiological importance of what has been learned so far warrant intensifying basic, translational, and clinical research on sex differences in eating.
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“When the energy deficit was addressed, the patterns of acylated ghrelin and insulin were attenuated, but still persisted.”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [57]
In the citing paper
“Hagobian and colleagues [57] demonstrated that in response to moderate-intensity continuous exercise with an uncompensated energy deficit, naturally menstruating women have higher concentrations of acylated ghrelin and lower concentrations of insulin, both of which stimulate energy intake.”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [57]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Asarian, L., & Geary, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Zurich (CH)
- Schwerzenbach, Switzerland
- Corresponding author
- Geary, Nori
- Venue
- American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 2013-12-01
- Volume
- 305
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- R1215-R1267
- ISSN
- 0363-6119 (ISSN-L)
- 1522-1490
- PMC
- PMC3882560
- OpenAlex
- W2155431359
- Cited by
- 513
- References
- 833
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 49 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 56 · 2017: 42 · 2016: 37 · 2015: 21 · 2014: 15
- FWCI
- 2.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (acceptedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh051135-02)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 51135, MH65024, R21MH065024)
- National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01DK054523, DK 54523, DK092608, R01DK092608)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Keywords
- sex differences, dietary habits, hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, reproductive hormones, androgens, estrogen, organizational effects, activational effects, estrogen receptor alpha, prolactin, hedonics, ghrelin, cholecystokinin, glucagon-like peptide-1, leptin, serotonin, melanocortin system, neuropeptide Y, agouti-related protein, dopamine, obesity, anorexia nervosa, binge eating
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Appetite Regulation, Eating, Feeding Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Sex Characteristics, Leptin, Glucagon-Like Peptide 1
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