Superficial shell insulation in resting and exercising men in cold water
Open accessAbstract
From measurements of subcutaneous fat temperature (Tsf) at known depths below the surface, skin surface temperature (Tsk), and direct skin heat flux (H), the superficial shell isulation (Iss) of the thigh (fat + skin) was calculated as Iss (degrees C.m2.w-1) = (Tsf - Tsk)/H in nine male subjects immersed head out in a well-stirred water bath. Also, at critical water temperature (CWT = 28–33 degrees C), eight of the subjects rested for 3 h, enabling overall maximal tissue insulation (It,max) to be calculated as It,max (degrees C.m2.W-1) = (Tre - Tw)/(0.92 M +/- delta S), where Tre is rectal temperature, Tw is water temperature, M is metabolic rate, and s is loss or gain of body heat. Five subjects performed up to 2 h of mild leg cycling, preceded and followed by 60 min of rest, and both thigh Iss and overall It were measured during exercise. Iss increased from minimal values in Tw greater than 33 degrees C to maximal values (Iss,max) at CWT or below. Iss,max was linearly related to tissue thickness (d) in millimeters of fat plus skin, Iss,max (degrees C.m2.W-1) = 0.0048d-0.0052; r = 0.95, n = 37, and was not influenced by leg exercise up to a metabolic rate of 150 W.m-2 in CWT despite large increases in Tsf and H and large decreases in overall It. The slope of Iss,max vs. depth, 0.0048 degrees C.m2.W-1.mm-1, is almost identical to thermal resistivity of fat in vitro, suggesting that the superficial shell is unperfused in CWT at rest or during mild exercise. When maximal superficial shell insulation (It,ss,max) for the whole body was calculated with allowance for differing fat thicknesses and surface areas of body regions, it could account for only 10–15% of overall It,max at rest and 35–40% of overall It in mild exercise. We suggest that the poorly perfused muscle shell plays a more important role as a defense against cooling at CWT than does the superficial shell (fat + skin), particularly at rest.
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Body composition leads to differences in body tissue insulation or subcutaneous fat and skin thickness.
“In addition, body composition leads to differences in body tissue insulation or subcutaneous fat and skin thickness [134,135].”
From Drivers of diversity in human thermal perception – A review for holistic comfort models (2018) · cites this paper as [134]
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“The insulation index (I index) to evaluate core-to-skin heat transfer was calculated (in °C·W21 ·m22) as (27)”
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“Muscle accounts for about 80% of total body insulation for resting subjects in cool water (Veicsteinas et al., 1982).”
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“The role of fat as insulation becomes even more important during exercise, as the insulation provided by muscle, which provides 60–75% of body insulation, is decreased ( Veicsteinas et al. 1982; Park et al. 1984).”
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Influence of adiposity on cooling efficiency in hyperthermic individuals
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“In resting individuals immersed in cold water, it has been suggested that 20‐30% of total body insulation is provided by subcutaneous fat and skin, with the other 70‐ 80% coming from the poorly perfused muscle (Anderson 1999; Park et al. 1984; Ducharme and Tikuisis 1994; Veicsteinas et al. 1982 ).”
BackgroundKinetics of oxygen consumption during maximal exercise at different muscle temperatures
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“The maximum vasoconstriction in muscles and skin (Rennie et al., 1971; Veicsteinas et al., 1982) and minimal convective heat loss via peripheral blood flow were observed at Tcw.”
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“Such changes reduce tissue insulation (Burton & Edholm, 1955; Ducharme & Tikuisis, 1991; Veicsteinas et al., 1982), with a fourfold change from maximal vasoconstriction through to maximal dilatation (Burton & Edholm, 1955; Veicsteinas et al., 1982).”
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Effect of non-uniform skin temperature on thermoregulatory response during water immersion
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“the increased blood circulation to muscle tissues raises the convective heat transfer from the body core to the skin, thereby reducing tissue insulation (Veicsteinas et al. 1982).”
BackgroundExploring internal body heat balance to understand thermal sensation
Kingma, B., Schweiker, M., Wagner, A., & Lichtenbelt, W. D. V. M. (2017) · Building Research & Information · doi:10.1080/09613218.2017.1299996 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“The range of tissue insulation a lean healthy body can provide is between 0.032 m 2 K/W ( i.e. maximum vasodilation) and 0.122 m 2 K/W ( i.e. maximum vasoconstriction) (Burton & Edholm, 1955; Veicsteinas, Ferretti, & Rennie, 1982).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA new look at survival times during cold water immersion
Xu, X., & Giesbrecht, G. G. (2018) · Journal of Thermal Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2018.08.022 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Taylor, N. A. S., Lee, J., Kim, S., & Notley, S. R. (2021) · Journal of Thermal Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2021.102858 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Does feeding regime affect physiologic and thermal responses during exposure to 8, 20, and 27� C?
Glickman-Weiss, E. L., Nelson, A. G., Hearon, C. M., et al. (1993) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/bf00377700 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Notley, S. R., Mitchell, D., & Taylor, N. A. S. (2023) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-023-05276-3 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
The Relationship between Body Composition and Thermal Responses to Hot and Cold Water Immersion
Stephens, J., Argus, C. K., & Driller, M. W. (2014) · Human performance in extreme environments · doi:10.7771/2327-2937.1051 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Veicsteinas et al. (1982) found that unperfused muscle accounts for approximately 80% of total insulation.”
BackgroundExercise in cold: Friend than foe to cardiovascular health
Feng, Z., Hu, Y., Yu, S., Bai, H., Sun, Y., Gao, W., Li, J., Qin, X., & Zhang, X. (2023) · Life Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.lfs.2023.121923 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Barwood, M. J., Burrows, H., Cessford, J., et al. (2015) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.11.017 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Notley, S. R., Mitchell, D., & Taylor, N. A. S. (2023) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-023-05284-3 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Schafer, E. A., Chapman, C. L., Castellani, J. W., & Looney, D. P. (2024) · Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1152/japplphysiol.00210.2024 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Effects of immersion in cool water on lung-exhaled nitric oxide at rest and during exercise
Pendergast, D. R., Krasney, J. A., & DeRoberts, D. (1999) · Respiration Physiology · doi:10.1016/s0034-5687(99)00006-7 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Bardy, E. R., Mollendorf, J. C., & Pendergast, D. (2006) · Journal of Physics D Applied Physics · doi:10.1088/0022-3727/39/18/018 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“It has been observed by Veiscteinas et al [11] that the insulation of the superficial tissue (fat) gradually increases as the average skin temperature approaches 35 ◦C, and it is at a maximum at 32 ◦C (maximal vasco-constriction).”
BackgroundEffects of wind and rain on thermal responses of humans in a mildly cold environment
Yamane, M., Oida, Y., Ohnishi, N., et al. (2010) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-010-1369-y · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Under cold conditions, subcutaneous fat is thought to be an important factor providing physiological protection against core cooling ( Veicsteinas et al. 1982 ).”
BackgroundInfluentialPretorius, T., Lix, L., & Giesbrecht, G. (2011) · Comput. Biol. Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2011.01.005 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“As expected body fat had a small negative effect on body heat loss as tissue insulation increases with fat thickness [28]; however it has been shown that at rest, only 10–15% of insulation is provided by unperfused skin and subcutaneous fat, with much of the remaining insulation coming from poorly perfused muscle [28].”
BackgroundThermal responses to exercise in the cold: influence of sex differences and alcohol.
Graham, T. E., & Lougheed, M. D. (1985) · PubMed · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Keramidas, M. E., Kölegård, R., & Eiken, O. (2018) · Journal of Thermal Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2018.02.010 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Notley, S. R., Mitchell, D., & Taylor, N. A. S. (2023) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-023-05262-9 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Cold weather operations: Preventive strategies in a military context
Klous, L., Teien, H. K., Hollis, S., Levels, K., Boonstra, A., Sullivan‐Kwantes, W., Haman, F., Castellani, J. W., Catoire, M., & Kingma, B. (2024) · Temperature · doi:10.1080/23328940.2024.2408059 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Arm insulation and swimming in cold water
Lounsbury, D. S., & Ducharme, M. B. (2008) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-008-0690-1 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“1985), but it is especially important during swimming because the variable component of shell insulation provided by the musculature is lost during work rates as low as four metabolic equivalents (Noakes 2000; Veicsteinas et al. 1982).”
BackgroundIncrease of Heat Loss by Wearing Gloves and Boots in Wet-suited Subjects Working in Cold water.
Park, Y. S., JungSook, K. I. M., & Choi, J. K. (1992) · The Annals of physiological anthropology · doi:10.2114/ahs1983.11.393 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Low‐Level Radiofrequency Exposure Induces Vasoconstriction in Rats
Cuc, T., Braun, A., Bach, V., Pelletier, A., & de Sèze, R. (2021) · Bioelectromagnetics · doi:10.1002/bem.22350 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…activity in which noradrenaline released from sympathetic nerves binds to α‐adrenergic (AR) receptors and triggers vascular smooth muscle contraction in the rat tail to reduce the level of heat exchange with the environment [Veicsteinas et al., 1982; McCorry, 2007; Johnson et al., 2011].”
BackgroundRodrigues, P., Orssatto, L. B. R., Hecksteden, A., et al. (2024) · Journal of Thermal Biology · doi:10.1016/j.jtherbio.2024.103925 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Cm, W., Hampton, I., Hardcastle, P. T., et al. (1994) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/bf00376766 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“It will also increase overall tissue conductance and may largely remove the 70-90% of total body insulation which has been thought to be provided by poorly perfused muscle in resting individuals immersed in cool water (Veicsteinas et al. 1982).”
Background
- Authors
- Veicsteinas, A., Ferretti, G., & Rennie, D. W.
- Affiliations
- Don Carlo Gnocchi Foundation (IT)
- University at Buffalo, State University of New York (US)
- ORCID
- Ferretti, G.
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Physiology
- Publisher
- American Physiological Society
- Published
- 1982-06-01
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1557-1564
- ISSN
- 0161-7567 (ISSN-L)
- 8750-7587
- 1522-1601
- OpenAlex
- W1919698343
- Cited by
- 161
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 0.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Physiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Institutional Research Information System (Università degli Studi di Brescia) (submittedVersion)
- Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Archive ouverte UNIGE (University of Geneva) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Thermoregulation and physiological responses
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Complementary and alternative medicine › Cardiovascular and exercise physiology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Critical Care and Intensive Care Medicine › Thermal Regulation in Medicine
- Keywords
- cold water immersion, thermal insulation, tissue thickness, exercise thermoregulation, rectal temperature, skin surface temperature
- MeSH terms
- Adipose Tissue, Adult, Body Temperature Regulation, Cold Temperature, Physical Exertion, Humans, Immersion, Male, Regression Analysis, Rest, Skin Physiological Phenomena, Time Factors
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