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Predicting Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms From Pretraumatic Risk Factors: A 2-Year Prospective Follow-Up Study in Firefighters
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: Most studies focusing on risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have used retrospective study designs. Only a small number of studies have prospectively examined risk factors in the immediate aftermath of trauma exposure in predicting PTSD symptoms. The purpose of this study was to identify predictive risk factors for posttraumatic stress symptoms and comorbid psychopathological symptoms present during the time before exposure to traumatic stress in a high-risk population. METHOD: Forty-three professional firefighters were assessed immediately after basic training (baseline) and at 6, 9, 12, and 24 months after entry into firefighter service. Subjects were screened for psychopathological symptoms, including symptoms of PTSD, depression, and anxiety. Subjects were also characterized with regard to personality traits such as self-efficacy, hostility, and alexithymia. Neuroendocrine activity was assessed by examination of awakening and diurnal salivary cortisol profiles and 24-hour urinary catecholamine excretion. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to analyze posttraumatic stress symptoms at 24-month follow-up as a function of pretraumatic characteristics. RESULTS: A high level of hostility and a low level of self-efficacy at baseline accounted for 42% of the variance in posttraumatic stress symptoms after 2 years. Subjects who had both risk factors at baseline showed a significant increase in measures of PTSD symptoms, depression, anxiety, general psychological morbidity, global symptom severity, and alexithymia during the 2-year period. Biological characteristics were not predictive of the development of psychopathological symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that specific personality traits may constitute markers of vulnerability to the development of psychopathological symptoms after trauma exposure. Early identification of preexisting risk factors is needed to provide effective prevention and intervention for individuals who are at risk of developing trauma-related disorders.
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“Specific studies have estimated the rate of PTSD symptoms to affect approximately 17% of Canadian firefighters [29], 18% of German firefighters [64], and 22% of American firefighters [29].”
From The Cyclical Battle of Insomnia and Mental Health Impairment in Firefighters: A Narrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [64]
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Predictors of PTSD symptoms for criterion A and non-criterion A events
Reiland, S. A. (2010)
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Work conditions and fatigue symptoms among Japanese male emergency medical technicians (EMTs)
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Psychometric Properties of the Demographics, Temperament and Coping Scales (DTCS)
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Peritraumaattisten dissosiaatio-oireiden yhteys myöhempään mielenterveyteen
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PREVALENCE OF POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER IN RESCUE WORKERS: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
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“Risk and vulnerability factors have been retrospectively linked to the development and maintenance of PTSD [1,2]; also pretraumatic risk factors have been associated with PTSD symptoms [3].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Heinrichs, M., Wagner, D., Schoch, W., Soravia, L. M., Hellhammer, D. H., & Ehlert, U.
- Affiliations
- University of Zurich (CH)
- Venue
- American Journal of Psychiatry
- Published
- 2005-12-01
- Volume
- 162
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 2276-2286
- ISSN
- 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
- 1535-7228
- OpenAlex
- W2153934273
- Cited by
- 337
- References
- 93
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 14 · 2012: 31
- FWCI
- 14.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
- Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Occupational Health and Performance
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, firefighters, hostility, self-efficacy, alexithymia, depression, anxiety, personality traits, trauma exposure, vulnerability indicators, salivary cortisol, urinary catecholamines, occupational stress
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Affective Symptoms, Mental Disorders, Circadian Rhythm, Cortisone, Fires, Follow-Up Studies, Health Status, Hostility, Humans, Life Change Events, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Occupational Diseases, Personality Assessment, Prospective Studies, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Surveys and Questionnaires, Risk Factors, Saliva, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Risk Assessment, Self Efficacy, Stress Disorders, Traumatic, Acute
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