Cited by 307Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentAnxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMental Health Treatment and Access

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Sex Differences in the Pathways to Major Depression: A Study of Opposite-Sex Twin Pairs

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Kendler, Kenneth S., Gardner, Charles O.·2014·American Journal of Psychiatry

DOI 10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13101375PMC PMC3972260

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Abstract

OBJECTIVE: The authors sought to clarify the nature of sex differences in the etiologic pathways to major depression. METHOD: Retrospective and prospective assessments of 20 developmentally organized risk factors and the occurrence of past-year major depression were conducted at two waves of personal interviews at least 12 months apart in 1,057 opposite-sex dizygotic twin pairs from a population-based register. Analyses were conducted by structural modeling, examining within-pair differences. RESULTS: Sixty percent of all paths in the best-fit model exhibited sex differences. Eleven of the 20 risk factors differed across sexes in their impact on liability to major depression. Five had a greater impact in women: parental warmth, neuroticism, divorce, social support, and marital satisfaction. Six had a greater impact in men: childhood sexual abuse, conduct disorder, drug abuse, prior history of major depression, and distal and dependent proximal stressful life events. The life event categories responsible for the stronger effect in males were financial, occupational, and legal in nature. CONCLUSIONS: In a co-twin control design, which matches sisters and brothers on genetic and familial-environmental background, personality and failures in interpersonal relationships played a stronger etiologic role in major depression for women than for men. Externalizing psychopathology, prior depression, and specific "instrumental" classes of acute stressors were more important in the etiologic pathway to major depression for men. The results are consistent with previously proposed typologies of major depression that suggest two subtypes that differ in prevalence in women (deficiencies in caring relationships and interpersonal loss) and men (failures to achieve expected goals, with lowered self-worth).

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Authors: Kendler, K. S., & Gardner, C. O.
Affiliations: Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
Corresponding author: Kendler, Kenneth S.
ORCID: Kendler, Kenneth S.
Venue: American Journal of Psychiatry
Publisher: American Psychiatric Association Publishing
Published: 2014-04
Volume: 171
Issue: 4
Pages: 426-435
ISSN: 0002-953X (ISSN-L)
1535-7228
DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2013.13101375
PMC: PMC3972260
OpenAlex: W2155785248
Cited by: 307
References: 71
Citations by year: 2026: 13 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 18 · 2022: 33 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 27 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 15
FWCI: 35.50
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Locations: American Journal of Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health
National Institute of Mental Health (MH-49492, R01MH049492)
National Center for Research Resources (UL1RR031990)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Keywords: major depressive disorder, sex differences, etiology of depression, co-twin control, risk factors, parental warmth, neuroticism, child sexual abuse, conduct disorder, drug abuse, life events, personality, interpersonal relationships, externalizing psychopathology, depression subtypes
MeSH terms: Adult, Child, Child Abuse, Sexual, Major Depressive Disorder, Depressive Disorder, Major, Diseases in Twins, Divorce, Female, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Marriage, Middle Aged, Parent-Child Relations, Personal Satisfaction, Risk Factors, Sex Factors, Social Support, Twins, Dizygotic, Conduct Disorder, Substance-Related Disorders, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Adult Survivors of Child Abuse, Gene-Environment Interaction

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Sex Differences in the Pathways to Major Depression: A Study of Opposite-Sex Twin Pairs

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