From Supervision to Opportunity: Reimagining Probation and Parole

“Reimagining community Supervision consistent with the criminal justice system’s larger focus on punishment (Feeley and Simon 1992; Simon 1993; garland 2001; Western 2006), the current system tABLe 3 Poverty Rate by Community Supervision and Sex and Race, Individuals Ages 18 to 64 in 2017 to 2019…”

“For example, stable, full-time employment in well-paying jobs promotes desistance from crime (Sampson and Laub 1993; Ramakers et al.”

“Reimagining community Supervision consistent with the criminal justice system’s larger focus on punishment (Feeley and Simon 1992; Simon 1993; garland 2001; Western 2006), the current system tABLe 3 Poverty Rate by Community Supervision and Sex and Race, Individuals Ages 18 to 64 in 2017 to 2019…”

“Research documents the low rates of employment, housing stability, health care access, and myriad other indicators of social and economic reintegration among people on supervision (visher and travis 2003; Western et al.”

“Reimagining community Supervision consistent with the criminal justice system’s larger focus on punishment (Feeley and Simon 1992; Simon 1993; garland 2001; Western 2006), the current system tABLe 3 Poverty Rate by Community Supervision and Sex and Race, Individuals Ages 18 to 64 in 2017 to 2019…”

“For example, communities with high incarceration rates are less able to reduce crime through informal social control because incarceration cycling disrupts social networks (clear 2007).”

“Similar results exist for intensive parole (Petersilia and turner 1993). the failure of intensive supervision shows how systems based on monitoring and surveillance will only perpetuate punishment.”

“Moreover, the costs of such fines and fees can disrupt reintegration and desistance from crime (Harris, evans, and Beckett 2010; DeMarco, Dwuer, and Haynie 2021).”

“Reimagining community Supervision consistent with the criminal justice system’s larger focus on punishment (Feeley and Simon 1992; Simon 1993; garland 2001; Western 2006), the current system tABLe 3 Poverty Rate by Community Supervision and Sex and Race, Individuals Ages 18 to 64 in 2017 to 2019…”

“Scholars and policymakers use the term “net widening” for criminal justice processes that escalate involvement (Austin and Krisberg 1981; McMahan 1990; tonry and Lynch 1996; Phelps 2013).”

“2015; Western 2018; Harding et al.”

“Yet a conviction creates or adds to one’s criminal record, leading to harsher sentences in the future (Kurlychek and Johnson 2019).”

“Incarceration cycling also increases the transmission of infectious diseases between prisons and jails and communities (Johnson and Raphael 2009).”

“Improving opportunities also makes communities safer: education, stable jobs, housing security, and good health all reduce crime (e.g., Sampson and Laub 2003; Bozick et al. 2018; Kirk et al. 2018; Link et al. 2019).”

“Scholars and policymakers use the term “net widening” for criminal justice processes that escalate involvement (Austin and Krisberg 1981; McMahan 1990; tonry and Lynch 1996; Phelps 2013).”

“Improving opportunities also makes communities safer: education, stable jobs, housing security, and good health all reduce crime (e.g., Sampson and Laub 2003; Bozick et al. 2018; Kirk et al. 2018; Link et al. 2019).”

“…with more stringent conditions than traditional probation (Palumbo, clifford, and Snyder-Joy 1992; Petersilia 1999), it ended up increasing the incidence of technical violations and incarceration compared to routine supervision (caplow and Simon 1999; Lin 2010; Lin, grattet, and Petersilia 2010).”

“…with more stringent conditions than traditional probation (Palumbo, clifford, and Snyder-Joy 1992; Petersilia 1999), it ended up increasing the incidence of technical violations and incarceration compared to routine supervision (caplow and Simon 1999; Lin 2010; Lin, grattet, and Petersilia 2010).”

“For example, stable, full-time employment in well-paying jobs promotes desistance from crime (Sampson and Laub 1993; Ramakers et al. 2017; LaBriola 2020), but the low-wage work often mandated by parole requirements does not (Seim and Harding 2020).”

“Scholars and policymakers use the term “net widening” for criminal justice processes that escalate involvement (Austin and Krisberg 1981; McMahan 1990; tonry and Lynch 1996; Phelps 2013).”

“However, some older analyses find similar recidivism rates among parolees and others who leave prison without supervision, controlling for demographic characteristics and criminal history (Waller 1974; gottfredson et al.”

“2017; Harding, Morenoff, and Wyse 2019).”

“…search and family reunification upon release. criminal behavior often results either from barriers to reintegration that cause poverty and housing insecurity or from relapses to addiction or mental illness that are themselves typically rooted in a life history of trauma (Sugie 2018; Western et al.”

“2017; LaBriola 2020), but the low-wage work often mandated by parole requirements does not (Seim and Harding 2020).”

“…no supervision (65.2 percent) than among parolees (50.7 percent) (Osterman, Saleron, and Hyatt 2015), this gap shrank when parole revocation was included in the definition of recidivism and disappeared entirely when controlling for demographics, offense, and a risk score (see also Jackson 1983).”

“…with more stringent conditions than traditional probation (Palumbo, clifford, and Snyder-Joy 1992; Petersilia 1999), it ended up increasing the incidence of technical violations and incarceration compared to routine supervision (caplow and Simon 1999; Lin 2010; Lin, grattet, and Petersilia 2010).”

“2019; Jones 2018; Miller 2020).”

“Periods of incarceration for violations of supervision can also lower earnings and harm employment prospects (Harding, Siegel, and Morenoff 2017).”

“Yet research documents the positive intentions of returning citizens; the vast majority of formerly incarcerated people desire “conventional” roles as workers, family members, students, and community members (Seim 2016; Western 2018; Harding, Dobson, et al.”

“States that expanded Medicaid enrollment under the Affordable care Act have arrest rates 20 to 30 percent lower than similar states that opted out of Medicaid expansion; the effect of Medicaid was especially large on the drug arrest rate (Simes and Jahn 2022).”

“High rates of incarceration for parole and probation violations coupled with the geographic concentration of people on supervision (Kirk 2020) create community-level harms. these emerge through the social and economic disruptions caused by many members of the community cycling in and out of prisons…”

“2019; Jones 2018; Miller 2020).”

“1982; Sacks and Logan 1980).”

“…this belief is both a cause and a consequence of the disproportionate representation of people of color throughout the criminal justice system, from arrest to pretrial detention, incarceration, and community supervision (Western 2006; Alexander 2010; Menendian and Rothstein 2020; Bradner et al.”

“Probation and parole populations are typically studied as one population, broadly defined as under “community supervision” (Harding et al., 2022).”

“Signi fi cant reform efforts are underway to rein in mass probation as a form of social control (Harding et al., 2022; Phelps, 2020).”

“In addition, CLS involvement may present complications such as legal and financial obligations, including probation or parole requirements, which can hinder reintegration into society post-release (Harding et al., 2022).”

“But as the pendulum swung in the early 2000s, rehabilitation became foregrounded albeit nested within regimes that prioritize risk assessment, regulation, surveillance, and individual responsibilization (Harding et al., 2022; Phelps & Ruhland, 2022; Phillips, 2013; Werth, 2013).”

“Returning citizens face steep barriers to employment (Pager, 2003; Seim & Harding, 2020), housing stability (Harding et al., 2019; Western, 2018), and general well-being (Harding et al., 2022).”

“Mass probation and mass incarceration are closely linked, creating a continuous cycle (Harding et al., 2022).”

“Thus, would-be rehabilitative resources like probation may be more onerous for the socially marginalized, resulting in delayed incarceration rather than acting as a substitute for it (Harding, Western, and Sandelson 2022; Lopoo, Schiraldi, and Ittner 2023; Phelps 2018).”

“Although parole (as the main model of reentry) historically included goals of rehabilitation and reintegration, surveillance and monitoring have become increasingly important functions (Harding et al., 2022; Opsal, 2011; Simon, 1993).”

“Some scholars have indicated that community supervision is ineffective in reducing recidivism (Harding et al., 2022).”

“However, Harding et al. (2022) highlight that individuals under community supervision face significant risks of arrest and incarceration, with little evidence supporting the claim that community supervision improves public safety.”

“However, it is also possible that those without the constant surveillance (i.e., those not in halfway houses, speci fi cally) are more successful due to less intense supervision (Harding et al., 2022; Lopoo et al., 2023).”

“However, in practice, community supervision is harsh and rigid in structure, creating more opportunities for a person to be further criminalized (Harding et al., 2022).”

“Individuals under community supervision may also be required to pay supervision fees or fines, which can further hinder their ability to afford stable housing or live in a safer neighborhood with lower crime rates (Harding et al., 2022).”

“They also frequently face unemployment, housing instability, and poor access to healthcare and support services (Harding et al., 2022).”

“This is particularly true given that justice-involved individuals often have limited employment opportunities (Sykes et al., 2022) and commonly earn limited incomes when employed (Harding et al., 2022).”