Community investment interventions as a means for decarceration: A scoping review

May combine two claims.

The Nurse-Family Partnership has been rigorously studied and reproduced in multiple regions across the United States with over a decade of participant follow-up.

“The Nurse-Family Partnership, in which a nurse attended multiple in-home visits to low-income, first-time pregnant mothers, has been rigorously studied and reproduced in multiple regions across the United States with over a decade of participant follow-up.30,32,33”

• cites [30] Kitzman, 2019, Prenatal and Infancy Nurse Home Visiting and 18-Year Outcomes of a Randomized Trial, Pediatrics sourceSupported
• cites [32] Olds, 1998, Long-term Effects of Nurse Home Visitation on Children's Criminal and Antisocial Behavior15-Year Follow-up of a Randomized Controlled Trial, JAMA sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [33] Eckenrode, 2010, Long-term effects of prenatal and infancy nurse home visitation on the life course of youths: 19-year follow-up of a randomized trial, Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Fast Track Prevention program resulted in a 34.7% relative decline in substance-related convictions and a 30.9% relative decrease in violent crime convictions at age 25.

“This program resulted in a 34.7% relative decline in substance-related convictions and a 30.9% relative decrease in violent crime convictions at age 25.20”

• cites [20] Dodge, 2015, Impact of early intervention on psychopathology, crime, and well-being at age 25, Am J Psychiatry sourcePartly supported

  The Results > Crime passage reports that Fast Track reduced the expected severity-weighted drug conviction index by 35% and violent crime conviction index by 31%, consistent with the claim’s approximate magnitudes. Our copy does not establish the more precise 34.7% and 30.9% figures, and the reported outcomes are severity-weighted indices rather than counts of convictions. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The MOVE program pilot study demonstrated the feasibility of providing housing on release from prison; despite encouraging results, a larger intervention trial has not materialized due to lack of funding.

“This is exemplified by the MOVE program pilot study, which demonstrated the feasibility of providing housing on release from prison. Despite encouraging results, a larger intervention trial has not materialized due to lack of funding.42”

• cites [42] Kirk, 2018, The impact of residential change and housing stability on recidivism: pilot results from the Maryland Opportunities through Vouchers Experiment (MOVE), J Exp Criminol sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion says the pilot showed that implementation challenges were not insurmountable and reports preliminary, encouraging results from a small sample. Pilot results says the authors were seeking funding for full-scale implementation. The paper does not establish that a larger trial subsequently failed to materialize because of a lack of funding. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

A New Haven TCN study of 188 reentering adults found those receiving TCN services experienced fewer days incarcerated (101.4 vs 187.4, p<0.0001) and fewer probation and parole violations (17% vs 33%, p<0.05) compared to a propensity-matched group in the 12 months following release, but no difference in arrest rates.

“A subsequent study of 188 reentering adults in New Haven, CT, concluded that those receiving TCN services experienced fewer days incarcerated (101.4 versus 187.4, p<0.0001) and fewer probation and parole violations (17% versus 33%, p<0.05) compared to propensity-matched group in the 12 months following release,47 but, similar to the California study, no difference in arrest rates.”

• cites [47] Wang, 2019, Propensity-matched study of enhanced primary care on contact with the criminal justice system among individuals recently released from prison to New Haven, BMJ Open sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Several non-peer reviewed economic working papers and one paper published after the search evaluated the role of federal economic policies and were not included in the review.

“Additionally, several non-peer reviewed economic working papers82,83 and one paper published after our search84 evaluated the role of federal economic policies were not included in our review.”

• cites [82] Lenhart, 2021, Earned income tax credit and crime, Contemporary Economic Policy sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction identifies this as a study of EITC policy and crime, but specifies that it examines higher state EITCs. The Discussion and Conclusions likewise says it uses state-level variation in EITC rates, so describing this paper as evaluating federal economic policy is imprecise. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [83] Vogler J. Access to health care and criminal behavior: Short-run evidence from the ACA Medicaid expansions. Available at SSRN 3042267.2017. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [84] He, 2020, The effect of health insurance on crime: Evidence from the Affordable Care Act Medicaid expansion, Health Economics sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Important intervention components across all navigation studies included a low caseload for caseworkers (20-30 clients per 1.0 FTE), services starting in prison and bridged to the community, and a target population of individuals who had committed violent crimes.

“Important intervention components across all studies included a low caseload for caseworkers (20-30 clients per 1.0 FTE), services starting in prison and bridged to the community, and a target population of individuals who had committed violent crimes.57,58,66,67”

• cites [57] Duwe, 2012, Evaluating the Minnesota Comprehensive Offender Reentry Plan (MCORP): Results from a Randomized Experiment, JQ: Justice Quarterly sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes MCORP services beginning during incarceration and continuing into the community, and says supervision agents had reduced caseloads. But it gives those caseloads as approximately 35–40 offenders, not 20–30; institutional caseworkers remained at 80–90. Its offense categories include property, drug, and DWI offenses, so it does not support describing people who committed violent crimes as the target population of this study. The paper also cannot establish what was true across all the cited studies. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [58] Veeh, 2017, Evaluation of a Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) Program in a Midwest State, Criminal Justice Policy Review sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [66] Clark, 2015, Making the most of second chances: an evaluation of Minnesota's high-risk revocation reduction reentry program, Journal of Experimental Criminology sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [67] Cook, 2015, An Experimental Evaluation of a Comprehensive Employment-Oriented Prisoner Re-entry Program, Journal of Quantitative Criminology sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction describes services beginning about six months before release and continuing afterward, and a target group with a history of violence or gang involvement. It does not establish a caseload of 20–30 clients per full-time caseworker. Nor does it say that every participant had committed a violent crime, or establish these features across all the studies cited in the sentence. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The review identified few primary prevention studies which did not demonstrate impact, suggesting publication bias, which undermines the ability to assess unsuccessful interventions.

“Finally, we identified few primary prevention studies which did not demonstrate impact25,34,36 suggesting publication bias, which undermines our ability to assess unsuccessful interventions.”

• cites [25] Campbell, 2012, Adult outcomes as a function of an early childhood educational program: an Abecedarian Project follow-up, Developmental psychology sourcePartly supported

  The Results (no page supplied) report no treatment difference in criminal activity, so this paper provides an example of a prevention study with a null outcome. But the Results also report significant educational gains, so it is not an example of an intervention that showed no impact overall. The paper does not assess the citing review’s study count or its suggestion of publication bias. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [34] Zun, 2006, The effectiveness of an ED-based violence prevention program, The American Journal of Emergency Medicine sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [36] Weiss, 2013, An independent randomized clinical trial of multisystemic therapy with non-court-referred adolescents with serious conduct problems, J Consult Clin Psychol sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (Primary intervention outcomes; page unavailable) reports no significant effect on teacher-reported problems or arrests, but significant improvement on two other primary outcomes. The study enrolled adolescents who already had serious conduct problems (Discussion, Secondary intervention outcomes; page unavailable), so it does not establish an unsuccessful primary-prevention study. The publication-bias suggestion is the citing authors’ inference, not a finding attributed to this trial. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

One review explored neighborhood-level interventions shown to reduce violence and emphasized the positive effect of neighborhood greening of vacant lots.

“One explored neighborhood-level interventions shown to reduce violence and emphasized the positive effect of neighborhood greening of vacant lots,86”

• cites [86] Kondo, 2018, Neighborhood Interventions to Reduce Violence, Annual Review of Public Health sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

A pilot study providing housing vouchers to 30 individuals upon release was shown to be feasible and promising; in the year following release, there were only 2 arrests among those randomized to a housing voucher and 9 among those who did not.

“The intervention was shown to be feasible and promising; in the year following release, there were only 2 arrests among those who were randomized to a housing voucher, and 9 among those who did not.”

• cites [42] Kirk, 2018, The impact of residential change and housing stability on recidivism: pilot results from the Maryland Opportunities through Vouchers Experiment (MOVE), J Exp Criminol sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A study examining a similar hospital-based violence intervention found the program had no impact for primary prevention of incarceration.

“A study examining a similar intervention found that the program had no impact for primary prevention of incarceration; the authors hypothesized this may be due to the low enrollment numbers when the study lost funding.46”

• cites [46] Wang, 2012, Engaging individuals recently released from prison into primary care: a randomized trial, Am J Public Health sourcePartly supported

  The Results (Return to Jail; page unavailable) found no significant difference in return-to-jail rates between the two groups. But this was a primary care trial involving people already released from prison, not a hospital-based violence intervention testing primary prevention of incarceration. The Discussion reports high participation, and our copy does not support the explanation that low enrollment followed a loss of funding. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

The review identified pitfalls to research on decarceration and specifically the lack of institutional investment in this work.

“Our review also identified pitfalls to research on decarceration and specifically the lack of institutional investment in this work.78”

• cites [78] Ahalt, 2015, The State of Research Funding From the National Institutes of Health for Criminal Justice Health Research, Annals of Internal Medicine sourcePartly supported

  The Results section (page unavailable) documents low NIH investment in criminal justice health research, supporting the point about limited institutional investment. It does not establish a lack of investment specifically in decarceration research. “Our review” refers to the citing authors’ own work, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A second review examined the violence interruption model, Cure Violence, which has been replicated and demonstrates a violence-reducing effect.

“and a second examined the violence interruption model, Cure Violence, which has been replicated and demonstrates a violence-reducing effect.85”

• cites [85] Butts, 2015, Cure Violence: A Public Health Model to Reduce Gun Violence, Annual Review of Public Health sourcePartly supported

  The Existing Research Evidence section describes evaluations of Cure Violence programs in several cities, supporting that the model has been replicated. But Evaluation Challenges and Limitations calls the evidence “mixed at best,” and the Conclusion says the studies could not clearly separate program effects from broader declines in violence. The paper therefore does not establish an unqualified violence-reducing effect. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

These papers support the implementation of the Earned Income Tax Credit and the expansion of Medicaid under the Affordable Care Act as crime-reducing measures.

“These papers support the implementation of the Earned Income Tax Credit and the expansion of Medicaid under the Affordable Care Act as crime-reducing measures.82,84”

• cites [82] Lenhart, 2021, Earned income tax credit and crime, Contemporary Economic Policy sourceSupported
• cites [84] He, 2020, The effect of health insurance on crime: Evidence from the Affordable Care Act Medicaid expansion, Health Economics sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A Washington state study found that expedited referral to Medicaid and linkage to care for those with serious mental illness resulted in increased rates of recidivism at 12 months (55% vs 46%, p<0.01), mostly explained by technical violations.

“Finally, a study from Washington state which examined the effect of an expedited referral to Medicaid and linkage to care for those with serious mental illness found the treatment group had increased rates of recidivism at 12 months (55% versus 46%, p<0.01), mostly explained by technical violations.”

• cites [44] Domino, 2019, Do timely mental health services reduce re-incarceration among prison releasees with severe mental illness?, Health Serv Res sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [45] Grabert, 2017, Expedited Medicaid Enrollment, Service Use, and Recidivism at 36 Months Among Released Prisoners With Severe Mental Illness, Psychiatr Serv sourcePartly supported

  Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Girls in the Elmira study treatment group were less likely to have an arrest (10% versus 30%) or conviction (4% versus 20%) after nearly two decades of follow-up.

“Girls in the Elmira study treatment group were less likely to have an arrest (10% versus 30%) or conviction (4% versus 20%) after nearly two decades of follow-up.”

May combine two claims.

Of the 43 interventions, 14 targeted primary prevention of incarceration and 29 targeted secondary prevention.

“Of the 43 interventions, 14 targeted primary prevention of incarceration20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 and 29 targeted secondary prevention (Tables 1, 2 and 3).”

May combine two claims.

Neither the Minnesota post-secondary degree study nor another study examining receipt of high school diploma or GED established an effect on reduced future criminal legal involvement.

“Interestingly, neither this study nor another examining the effect of receiving high school diploma or GED established an effect on reduced future criminal legal involvement.40”

• cites [38] Duwe, 2014, The effects of prison-based educational programming on recidivism and employment, The Prison Journal sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [40] Zgoba, 2008, The influence of GED obtainment on inmate release outcome, Criminal Justice and Behavior sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In Moving to Opportunity stratified analyses, girls in the treatment arm experienced a one-third relative reduction in risk for arrest for violent and property crime (p<0.05), while boys experienced a non-significant decrease in arrest for violent crime and a 33% relative increase in property crime (p<0.10).

“Stratified analyses found that while girls in the treatment arm experienced a one-third relative reduction in risk for arrest for violent and property crime (p<0.05), boys experienced a non-significant decrease in arrest for violent crime and a 33% relative increase in property crime (both of marginal significance, p<0.10).28”

• cites [28] Kling, 2005, Neighborhood effects on crime for female and male youth: Evidence from a randomized housing voucher experiment, The Quarterly Journal of Economics sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

An additional 4 articles were identified, totaling 53 included articles.

“We identified an additional 4 articles in references or by expert recommendation, totaling 53 articles.”

May combine two claims.

Secondary prevention intervention studies more often used a quasi-experimental design and were heterogenous in their execution.

“Unlike intervention studies focused on primary prevention, those focused on secondary prevention of incarceration more often used a quasi-experimental design and were heterogenous in their execution.”

May combine two claims.

Twenty-eight included studies were randomized controlled trials and 15 employed quasi-experimental design.

“Twenty-eight were designed as randomized control trials (RCTs),20,23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34,36,37,42,43,46,48,50,53,54,56,57,60, 61, 62, 63, 64,66, 67, 68 and 15 employed quasi-experimental design,21,22,35,38, 39, 40, 41,44,45,47,49,51,52,55,58,59,65 predominantly using propensity-score matching.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

All primary prevention interventions took place in the community.

“By definition, all primary prevention interventions took place in the community;”

May combine two claims.

Other studies did not find any benefit of employment programs; the STRIVE model, which provided soft-skills training and access to a computer lab after release but no connection to a job, was one example.

“Other studies did not find any benefit of employment programs; one example was the STRIVE model, which provided soft-skills training and access to a computer lab after release but no connection to a job.50”

• cites [50] Farabee, 2014, An experimental evaluation of a nationally recognized employment-focused offender reentry program, Journal of Experimental Criminology sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Most secondary prevention interventions were community-based (N=17) or served as a bridge between incarceration and return to the community (N=8).

“most secondary prevention interventions were community-based (N=17)41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48,50,53,54,59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64,68 or served as a bridge between incarceration and return to the community (N=8).”

May combine two claims.

Seven studies tested the effect of employment-based interventions on return to incarceration, and three documented reductions in future criminal legal system contact.

“Seven studies tested the effect of employment-based interventions on return to incarceration,48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54 three of which documented reductions in future criminal legal system contact.49,51,54”

May combine two claims.

The National Supported Work Demonstration Project found an age-varying effect: participants 26 or younger experienced no reduction in rearrest rates at three years (55% vs 54%, p>0.05), while participants ages 27 or greater experienced an 11% decrease (p<0.001) in rearrest rates.

“This study found an age-varying effect of the intervention: those 26 years old or younger experienced no reduction in rearrest rates at three years (55% versus 54%, p>0.05) but participants ages 27 years or greater experienced an 11% decrease (p<0.001) in rearrest rates.54”

• cites [54] Uggen, 2000, Work as a turning point in the life course of criminals: A duration model of age, employment, and recidivism, American sociological review sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

EMPLOY participants (232) experienced reduced rearrest rates (42% vs 50%), reconviction rates (25% vs 31%), reincarceration rates (9% vs 14%), and revocation rates (21% vs 38%) compared with 232 propensity-score matched eligible nonrecipients.

“The study found that the 232 participants in the treatment group experienced reduced rearrest rates (42% versus 50%), reconviction rates (25% versus 31%), reincarceration rates (9% versus 14%), and revocation rates (21% versus 38%), compared with 232 participants in the propensity-score matched group who were eligible but did not receive EMPLOY services.”

• cites [49] Duwe, 2015, The benefits of keeping idle hands busy: An outcome evaluation of a prisoner reentry employment program, Crime & Delinquency sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Mothers in the Nurse-Family Partnership had a longer interval to their next pregnancy and female children were more likely to be older at the time of their first pregnancy.

“Mothers had a longer interval to their next pregnancy and female children were more likely to be older at the time of their first pregnancy.”

May combine two claims.

The effects of Moving to Opportunity were strongest in the two years immediately after the intervention and more durable for violent crime outcomes relative to property crime.

“The effects were strongest in the two years immediately after the intervention and more durable for violent crime outcomes relative to property crime.”

May combine two claims.

Ten interventions fell within education, 3 within housing, 7 within healthcare, 8 within employment, and 15 within social support.

“Ten interventions fell within education,20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27,38, 39, 40 3 within housing,28,29,41,42 7 within healthcare,30, 31, 32, 33, 34,43, 44, 45, 46, 47 8 within employment,37,48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54 and 15 within social support.”

May combine two claims.

There are evidence-based interventions in education, housing, employment, healthcare, and social support programs which can catalyze decarceration and have not been widely scaled.

“Further, there are evidence-based interventions in the domains of education, housing, employment, healthcare, and social support programs which can catalyze decarceration and have not been widely scaled.”

May combine two claims.

While state and federal governments funded more than half of the studies included in the review (N=27), the majority included less than five years of follow-up.

“While state and federal governments funded more than half of the studies included in this review (N=27), the majority included less than five years of follow-up, even though many of the interventions’ benefits may be realized decades after implementation.”

May combine two claims.

In a hospital-based violence intervention study of 100 individuals randomized to participation, the control group experienced increased odds of violent arrest (OR 3.2, p<0.001), any crime conviction (OR 2.3, p<0.001), and violent crime conviction (OR 4.4, p<0.001) compared to the treatment arm.

“Of 100 individuals randomized to participation, those in the control group experienced increased odds of violent arrest (OR 3.2, p<0.001), any crime conviction (OR 2.3, p<0.001) and violent crime conviction (OR 4.4, p<0.001) compared to individuals in the treatment arm.43”

• cites [43] Cooper, 2006, Hospital-based violence intervention programs work, J Trauma sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The review identified promising interventions across a number of domains which have not been implemented to scale, documented a conspicuous paucity of rigorous studies to date, and noted the limitations of short-term funding structures for research.

“We identified promising interventions across a number of domains which have not been implemented to scale, documented a conspicuous paucity of rigorous studies to date, and noted the limitations of short-term funding structures for research.”

May combine two claims.

An RCT of 200 reentering adults in San Francisco found TCN program participation reduced emergency department use but did not impact arrest rates (58% vs 53%, p=0.46) twelve months after enrollment.

“An RCT of 200 reentering adults in San Francisco, CA, found that TCN program participation reduced emergency department use but did not impact arrest rates (58% versus 53%, p=0.46) twelve months after enrollment.73”

• cites [73] Wang, 2011, Effect of providing tailored primary care on health care utilization and return to jail among recently released prisoners: A randomized controlled trial, Journal of General Internal Medicine sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The Boston Reentry Initiative, among 108 participants and 309 propensity score-matched people released in the year prior to intervention start, had lower rearrest rates at three years in treatment (77.8% vs 87.7%, p<0.01), with a greater reduction for violent crime rearrest at three years (27.8% vs 39.2%, p<0.05).

“Re-arrest rates at three years were high in both groups, but lower in the treatment group (77.8% versus 87.7%, p<0.01). The reduction was greater for violent crime re-arrest at three years (27.8% versus 39.2%, p<0.05).55”

• cites [55] Braga, 2009, Controlling violent offenders released to the community: An evaluation of the Boston reentry initiative, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Common themes in unsuccessful employment and social support interventions included not considering the participants' strengths or interests, starting in the community (as opposed to during incarceration), or offering employment opportunities limited to only low-skill, minimum wage work.

“Common themes in unsuccessful employment and social support interventions included not considering the participants’ strengths or interests, starting in the community (as opposed to during incarceration) or offering employment opportunities limited to only low-skill, minimum wage work.48,50,52,54”

• cites [48] Bond, 2015, A Controlled Trial of Supported Employment for People With Severe Mental Illness and Justice Involvement, Psychiatr Serv sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [50] Farabee, 2014, An experimental evaluation of a nationally recognized employment-focused offender reentry program, Journal of Experimental Criminology sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [52] Northcutt Bohmert, 2012, Minnesota's Affordable Homes Program: Evaluating the Effects of a Prison Work Program on Recidivism, Employment and Cost Avoidance, Criminal Justice Policy Review sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [54] Uggen, 2000, Work as a turning point in the life course of criminals: A duration model of age, employment, and recidivism, American sociological review sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Three healthcare interventions identified in the review-Nurse-Family Partnership, the Transitions Clinic Network, and hospital-based violence reduction programs-show evidence of reducing criminal legal system contact but have not been systematically scaled, in part due to barriers funding non-physician labor in the health sector.

“For instance, three healthcare interventions identified in this review– Nurse-Family Partnership, the Transitions Clinic Network, and hospital-based violence reduction programs—show evidence of reducing criminal legal system contact but have not been systematically scaled, in part, due to barriers funding non-physician labor in the health sector.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

E.W., L.P., J.C., and L.H. developed a protocol a priori using the Joanna Briggs Institute Scoping Review Template Guidelines.

“E.W., L.P., J.C., and L.H. developed a protocol a priori using the Joanna Briggs Institute Scoping Review Template Guidelines.18”

• cites [18] Peters M, Godfrey C, McInerney P, Munn Z, Tricco A, Khalil H. Chapter 11: Scoping Reviews (2020 version). JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis. https://synthesismanual.jbi.global/. Published 2020. Accessed 13 Jan 2021. sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Reducing the number of people incarcerated will require targeted investments in the community safety net to support those impacted by mass incarceration.

“Scholars argue that reducing the number of people incarcerated will require targeted investments in the community safety net to support those impacted by mass incarceration,12”

• cites [12] Davis, 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Data were extracted from each eligible study using a uniform extraction form.

“The following information was extracted from each study deemed eligible for inclusion, using a uniform extraction form (missing data were documented):”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Thick public safety-the community services required to afford a stable and safe livelihood-is a necessary prerequisite for avoiding initial and repeated criminal legal contact.

“In his book Homeward, sociologist Bruce Western introduced the idea of “thick public safety”—the community services required to afford a stable and safe livelihood—as a necessary prerequisite for avoiding initial and repeated criminal legal contact.”

• cites [17] Western, 2018Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Two authors independently reviewed all full-text articles.

“Two authors (L.H. and E.L.) independently reviewed all full-text articles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The finalized protocol was not registered but has been included in supplementary materials.

“Because PROSPERO did not accept protocols for scoping reviews as of January 2021, this finalized protocol was not registered but has been included in supplementary materials (Appendix A).”

May combine two claims.

Notable similarities of the effective early childhood programs were involvement of parent and child, sustained programmatic funding, and generation of positive outcomes measured decades after the intervention.

“Notable similarities of these programs were involvement of parent and child, sustained programmatic funding, and the generation of positive outcomes measured decades after the intervention.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Discrepancies were decided by consensus after additional discussion with authors L.P. and E.W.

“Discrepancies were decided by consensus after additional discussion with authors L.P. and E.W.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The review protocol only included studies that examined the individual-level outcome of criminal legal system involvement.

“Further, our protocol only included studies that examined the individual-level outcome of criminal legal system involvement.”

May combine two claims.

Recent legislative changes returned the right of incarcerated individuals to receive Pell grants and have the potential to drastically improve their access to college education.

“Recent legislative changes, which returned the right of incarcerated individuals to receive Pell grants, have the potential to drastically improve their access to college education.”

May combine two claims.

The Michigan-based Maternal and Infant Health Program, similar in design to the Nursing Family Partnership, is funded by Medicaid and is a home-visiting service available to all Medicaid-eligible pregnant women in the state.

“Also, the Michigan-based Maternal and Infant Health Program, similar in design to the Nursing Family Partnership, is funded by Medicaid and is a home-visiting service available to all Medicaid-eligible pregnant women in the state.76”

• cites [76] Willems Van Dijk, 2011, The Impact of Prenatal Care Coordination on Birth Outcomes, Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic & Neonatal Nursing sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Secondary education is a necessary but insufficient potentiating step in creating a stable pathway post-release.

“This suggests that secondary education is a necessary but insufficient potentiating step in creating a stable pathway post-release.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

An entire field of research devoted to the risk-needs-responsivity model of correctional programming was not included because this model centers on correctional programming, not community resources.

“An entire field of research is devoted to the risk-needs-responsivity model of correctional programming81, which was not included here because this model centers on correctional programming, not community resources.”

• cites [81] Taxman, 2006, Risk, needs, responsivity: In action or inaction?, Crime & Delinquency sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The review did not include studies which evaluated levels of neighborhood crime.

“As such, we did not include studies which evaluated levels of neighborhood crime, which has been reviewed in two recent articles.85,86”

May combine two claims.

The review is unique due to its focus on community-based investments and exclusion of observational studies.

“We note that prior work has evaluated recidivism reduction, especially employment and education,79,80 but our study is unique due to its focus on community-based investments and exclusion of observational studies.”

May combine two claims.

In most states, public health insurance, especially Medicaid, does not cover services that fall outside of traditional clinical services, though this is slowly changing.

“In most states, public health insurance, especially Medicaid, does not cover services that fall outside of traditional clinical services, though this is slowly changing.74”

• cites [74] Spencer, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A federal law passed in 1994 withdrew Pell grant accessibility for incarcerated individuals, reducing the number of college programs within prisons from 772 in 1990 to eight in 1997.

“A federal law passed in 1994 withdrew Pell grant accessibility for incarcerated individuals, reducing the number of college programs within prisons in our country from 772 in 1990 to eight in 1997.77”

• cites [77] Sawyer, 2019, Since You Asked: How did the 1994 crime bill affect prison college programs?, Prison Policy InitiativeNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Unsuccessful interventions for education, employment, and social support suggested that the dose of the intervention matters; a comprehensive, well-resourced intervention which provides access to future material needs for well-being is more likely to prevent future criminal legal contact.

“Unsuccessful interventions for three domains (education, employment, and social support) suggested that the dose of the intervention matters; a comprehensive, well-resourced intervention which provides access to future material needs for well-being is more likely to prevent future criminal legal contact.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

If college programs are scaled to match demand, this has potential to substantially impact the success of students after release.

“If college programs are scaled to match the demand, this has potential to substantially impact the success of students after release.”