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Cited by 144Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisCrime Patterns and InterventionsCriminal Justice and Penology

Consequences of mental and physical health for reentry and recidivism: Toward a health‐based model of desistance*

Open access
Link, Nathan W., Ward, Jeffrey T., Stansfield, Richard·2019·Criminology
DOI 10.1111/1745-9125.12213
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Abstract

During the last few decades, criminologists have identified several adult roles and statuses, including employment, positive family relations, and economic stability, as critical for promoting successful reintegration and desistance. Very few researchers, however, have investigated the conditions that serve to bring about these transitions and successes crucial for behavior change. As a complement to a burgeoning amount of literature on the impact of incarceration on health, we emphasize the reverse: Health has important implications for reentry outcomes and reincarceration. Informed by multiple disciplines, we advance a health‐based model of desistance in which both mental and physical dimensions of health affect life chances in the employment and family realms and ultimately recidivism. Investigating this issue with longitudinal data from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) and structural equation models, we find overall support for the health‐based model of desistance. Our results indicate several significant pathways through which both manifestations of health influence employment, family conflict, financial problems, and crime and reincarceration. The findings highlight the need for implementation of correctional and transitional policies to improve health among the incarcerated and avert health‐related reentry failures.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This paper proposes and tests a health-based model of desistance, arguing that mental and physical health at release shape employment, family conflict, and financial problems, which in turn affect crime and reincarceration. Using longitudinal SVORI data and structural equation models, it finds support for multiple direct and indirect pathways from health to recidivism.

Key findings

  • Physical health limitations strongly increased depression: a 1-SD increase in health limitations was associated with a .32-SD increase in depressive symptoms. Each SD increase in health limitations reduced the odds of employment at 3 months by 44%.
  • Depression increased family conflict: a 1-SD increase in depression was associated with a .13-SD increase in family conflict. Family conflict, in turn, increased crime: a 1-SD increase in family conflict led to a .20-SD increase in self-reported crime.
  • Financial problems predicted reincarceration: a 1-SD increase in financial problems increased the odds of reincarceration by approximately 21%, while a 1-SD increase in crime increased the odds of reincarceration by 87%.
  • Bootstrap mediation analyses found significant indirect pathways linking physical health limitations and depression to crime and reincarceration through employment, family conflict, and financial problems; employment had negative indirect effects on crime and reincarceration via family conflict and financial problems.

Methods

  • Data came from the Serious and Violent Offender Reentry Initiative (SVORI) evaluation, adult male prisoners across 12 U.S. states; the final models included 1,532 of 1,697 men, with four waves: baseline about 30 days before release and 3, 9, and 15 months postrelease.
  • Physical health limitations and depression were latent baseline constructs; family conflict was measured at 3 months, employment at 3 months, financial problems and self-reported crime at 9 months, and reincarceration at 15 months.
  • The study used hybrid structural equation models with latent constructs, robust weighted least-squares estimation (WLSMV), and bias-corrected bootstrapping with 5,000 draws for mediation tests.

Limitations

  • Stated by the authors: the analysis is limited to adult men convicted of serious and/or violent offenses, so generalizability is limited; future work should examine lesser crimes and women. The financial problems measure may capture some element of financial assistance receipt rather than broader debt, income, or expenses. The SVORI data follow individuals only through 15 months postrelease, and employment quality was not measured.
  • Stated by the authors: future research should examine interactions between physical and mental health conditions, including mediated moderation, because health is only one determinant of depression.
  • Evident from the text: the design is observational, and the authors note that SEM cannot identify causal relationships without experimental data; health was measured at baseline, self-reported crime was used, and attrition/missing data were addressed with multiple techniques but possible bias remains.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/1745-9125.12213

Cites

153 of 153 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 51 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The study's results indicate several significant pathways through which both manifestations of health influence employment, family conflict, financial problems, and crime and reincarceration.

    “Our results indicate several significant pathways through which both manifestations of health influence employment, family conflict, financial problems, and crime and reincarceration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The study found overall support for the health-based model of desistance.

    “we find overall support for the health-based model of desistance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    A 1-SD increase in crime was associated with an 87 percent increase in the odds of reincarceration.

    “A 1-standard-deviation increase in crime was associated with an 87 percent increase in the odds of reincarceration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Net of physical health and covariates, those with more depressive symptoms did not experience any added difficulty in securing employment.

    “Net of physical health and covariates, however, those with more depressive symptoms did not experience any added difficulty in securing employment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    After controlling for employment history and covariates, individuals who were working after release experienced less family conflict (p < .001).

    “After controlling for employment history and covariates, we found that individuals who were working after release experienced less family conflict (p < .001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 37
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 28

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The latent depression factor explains 53 percent of the variation in a typical item and the physical health limitations factor explains approximately 77 percent of the variance in a typical item.

    “Specifically, the latent depression factor explains 53 percent of the variation in a typical item and the physical health limitations factor explains approximately 77 percent of the variance in a typical item.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Physical health limitations did not have a statistically significant direct effect on either family conflict or financial problems.

    “Physical health limitations did not have a statistically significant direct effect on either family conflict or financial problems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Family conflict contributes to recidivism directly and also via financial hardship.

    “Although family conflict contributes to recidivism directly, it also does so via financial hardship, thereby providing insights for policy aimed at remedying its effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Average standardized factor loadings were physical health limitations (.88), depression (.73), family conflict (.76), and crime (.80).

    “Specifically, average standardized factor loadings on the latent constructs include physical health limitations (.88), depression (.73), family conflict (.76), and crime (.80).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both physical limitations and depression affect adult role fulfillment, some of which act as intervening mechanisms that ultimately lead to further offending and reincarceration.

    “we found longitudinal evidence that both physical limitations and depression affect adult role fulfillment, some of which act as intervening mechanisms that ultimately lead to further offending and reincarceration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Depression directly increases family conflict and indirectly increases financial problems, crime, and reincarceration.

    “Overall, our results indicate that depression directly increases family conflict and indirectly increases financial problems, crime, and reincarceration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Physical limitations directly reduce employment, increase depression, and indirectly increase family conflict, financial problems, crime, and reincarceration.

    “Physical limitations directly reduce employment, increase depression, and indirectly increase family conflict, financial problems, crime, and reincarceration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many people live with family members after release and rely on them for support and access to employment.

    “many people live with family members after release and rely on them for support and access to employment (Uggen et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Uggen et al., 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Offending is more likely to predict poor health than the reverse.

    “He found that offending was much more likely to predict poor health rather than the other way around.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Farrington, 1995

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Unemployment and increased economic hardship are expected to increase the probability of reoffending after release.

    “unemployment and an increase in economic hardship are both expected to increase the probability of reoffending after release from prison.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Reentry failures can have critical implications for recidivism.

    “These reentry failures can have critical implications for recidivism”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Health problems engendering tension between former prisoners and family members may decrease informal control and support, decreasing likelihood of desistance.

    “health problems engendering tension between former prisoners and their family members may result in a decrease in informal control and support, thereby decreasing the likelihood that desistance will take root.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The family conflict model is just-identified with three indicators, so fit statistics cannot be assessed.

    “With three indicators, this model is just-identified, and therefore, fit statistics cannot be assessed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The present analysis employed bias-corrected bootstraps (5,000 draws), which addressed potential skewness in the distribution of bootstrap estimates.

    “In the present analysis, we employed bias-corrected bootstraps (5,000 draws), which addressed potential skewness in the distribution of bootstrap estimates such that in the event that the distribution is positively skewed, the confidence interval is shifted to the right, and vice versa in the case of negative skewness”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Bootstrapping can be used to quantify indirect effects without the need to assume normality in the sampling distribution of the indirect effect.

    “we employed bootstrapping as it can be used to quantify indirect effects without the need to assume normality in the sampling distribution of the indirect effect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hayes, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hayes & Scharkow, 2013

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    • cites MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    At 3 months, 58% were re-interviewed; 61% at 9 months; 66% at 15 months.

    “At 3 months, 58 percent (984) were successfully re-interviewed; 61 percent (1035) were interviewed at 9 months, and 66 percent (1113) at 15 months.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Financial problems and family conflict increased via the negative effect of health limitations on employment status, which in turn led to significant increases in recidivism.

    “Moreover, financial problems and family conflict also increased via the negative effect of health limitations on employment status (health limitations → employment → financial problems; and health limitations → employment → family conflict), which in turn led to significant increases in recidivism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders that would explain the observed relationships between health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.
    • Rests on an assumption: The specified structural model correctly represents the causal ordering among health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Reentering society with physical health limitations decreased an individual's ability to hold employment and those with greater physical health limitations were likely to be released with more mental health problems in the form of depressive symptoms.

    “In short, reentering society with physical health limitations decreased an individual's ability to hold employment and those with greater physical health limitations were likely to be released with more mental health problems in the form of depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders that would explain the observed relationships between health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.
    • Rests on an assumption: The specified structural model correctly represents the causal ordering among health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The second major pathway beginning with health limitations was its effect on family conflict through depression, and this pathway was significantly related to both types of recidivism.

    “The second major pathway beginning with health limitations was its effect on family conflict through depression (health limitations → depression → family conflict).From here, this pathway was significantly related to both types of recidivism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders that would explain the observed relationships between health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.
    • Rests on an assumption: The specified structural model correctly represents the causal ordering among health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Depression was indirectly linked to crime through both family conflict and through an impact mediated by both family conflict and financial problems.

    “Depression was indirectly linked to crime through both family conflict and through an impact mediated by both family conflict and financial problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders that would explain the observed relationships between health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.
    • Rests on an assumption: The specified structural model correctly represents the causal ordering among health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Minor health strains are linked to nonviolent delinquency and violent behavior.

    “minor health strains have been linked to nonviolent delinquency (Stogner & Gibson, 2010), as well as to violent behavior in reciprocal effects models (Stogner et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Stogner & Gibson, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Stogner et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Self-reported health problems are positively associated with delinquency, with indirect effect through school absence and stress proliferation.

    “she confirmed a positive association with delinquency, with a significant proportion of the total effect explained via an indirect effect through school absence and stress proliferation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kort-Butler, 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Key health variables were measured at baseline and have almost no missing data, and the ultimate reincarceration variable measured at 15 months contains no missing data.

    “Our key health variables were measured at baseline and have almost no missing data, and the ultimate reincarceration variable measured at 15 months contains no missing data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A theoretical connection between health and its consequences is harder to articulate with general self-rated health measures.

    “a theoretical connection between health and its consequences becomes harder to articulate with these types of measures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Strain associated with chronic conditions, physical disabilities, or minor health issues can lead to coping mechanisms involving alcohol, illicit drug use, and nonviolent delinquency.

    “the strain associated with chronic conditions, physical disabilities, or minor health issues can lead to coping mechanisms involving alcohol, illicit drug use, and nonviolent delinquency (Stogner & Gibson, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stogner & Gibson, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    5,000 sample draws has been suggested as a suitable number for bootstrapping.

    “5,000 has been suggested as a suitable number of sample draws (Preacher & Hayes, 2008)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Preacher & Hayes, 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The depression latent variable had strong fit on CFI and TLI (CFI = .98, TLI = .97) and fair fit on RMSEA (.07), with Cronbach's alpha .85.

    “Model fit was strong on two measures (CFI = .98,TLI = .97)and fair on another (RMSEA = .07).”
    • Also stated in: § 5.2 Measures 5.2.1 Health · plain
      “Cronbach's alpha was .85.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Results from sensitivity analyses using multiple imputation to address missing data indicated an almost identical story.

    “Results from sensitivity analyses in which the model was estimated using multiple imputation to address missing data indicated an almost identical story (results displayed in table S2 in the online supporting information).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The study posits a direct link between physical health limitations and depression, which in turn influence employment, family conflict, financial problems, and reoffending.

    “we posit a direct link between physical health limitations and depression, which in turn both influence employment, family conflict, financial problems, and reoffending.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    One's financial situation leads to reincarceration through criminal behavior but also directly, possibly due to financial debt obligations among the formerly incarcerated.

    “Taken together, this finding indicates that one's financial situation leads to reincarceration through criminal behavior but also directly-the latter of which may be a dynamic related to financial debt obligations among the formerly incarcerated, including their inability to pay and subsequent increased risk of reincarceration (Harris, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Harris, 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders that would explain the observed relationships between health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.
    • Rests on an assumption: The specified structural model correctly represents the causal ordering among health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Because the study uses observational data, several key covariates were included to reduce the possibility that statistically significant relationships could be the result of confounding.

    “Because we use observational data, we include several key covariates to reduce the possibility that statistically significant relationships could be the result of confounding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders that would explain the observed relationships between health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Bootstrapping has been suggested to be the best approach for assessing mediated effects.

    “bootstrapping has been suggested to be the best approach for assessing mediated effects (Hayes, 2009;Hayes & Scharkow, 2013;MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004;Preacher & Hayes, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hayes, 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hayes & Scharkow, 2013

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    • cites MacKinnon, Lockwood, & Williams, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Reincarceration was measured at 15 months using both administrative data from state agencies and national-level data from the FBI's National Crime Information Center, and contains no missing data.

    “Reincarceration was a binary indicator measured at 15 months using both administrative data from state agencies as well as the national-level data from the FBI's National Crime Information Center (Lattimore & Visher, 2013).This variable does not contain any missing data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lattimore & Visher, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Recommended RMSEA cutoffs are < .06 for good fit and < .08 for adequate fit and > .95 for CFI and TLI.

    “Recommended RMSEA cutoffs are < .06 for good fit and < .08 for adequate fit and > .95for the CFI and TLI (Acock, 2013;Hu & Bentler, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Acock, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Hu & Bentler, 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Inclusion of covariates is critical because structural equation modeling cannot be used to identify causal relationships without experimental data.

    “Inclusion of covariates is critical because structural equation modeling (SEM) cannot be used to identify causal relationships without experimental data (see Bollen & Pearl, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bollen & Pearl, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Respondent attrition can bias analyses using follow-up samples, especially for formerly incarcerated.

    “respondent attrition can be an issue that can bias analyses using follow-up samples, and it is especially challenging to follow the formerly incarcerated released to their communities (Western, Braga, Hureau, & Sirois, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Western, Braga, Hureau, & Sirois, 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The measurement model for physical health limitations showed sufficient overall fit (CFI = .99, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .09) and Cronbach's alpha was .80.

    “Model fit showed to be sufficient overall (Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .99,Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = .99,root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA).= .09).Cronbach's alpha was .80.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The analysis addresses potential bias from missing data by estimating final models using multiple techniques, including multiple imputation.

    “As such, we address this issue by estimating our final models using multiple techniques for addressing missing data, including an analysis in which the model is estimated using multiply imputed data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    CFA produces a variable that is error-adjusted and produces more accurate parameter estimates and smaller standard errors.

    “The result is a variable that is error-adjusted that produces more accurate parameter estimates and smaller standard errors (Acock, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Acock, 2013

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The depression items are similar to the items in the widely used Center for Epidemiologic Studies - Depression scale.

    “These items are similar to the items found in the widely used Center for Epidemiologic Studies -Depression scale (Radloff, 1977).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Radloff, 1977

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Self-reported crime was measured using six items based on the idea of a generality of deviance.

    “This is based on the idea of a generality of deviance (Osgood, Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman, 1988).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Osgood, Johnston, O'Malley, & Bachman, 1988

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The reduced structural model did not fit significantly worse than the saturated model (χ2 difference test = 10.79, p > .05; RMSEA = .02; CFI = .98; TLI = .97), so the theoretical model is preferable as it is more parsimonious.

    “The chi-squared test for decrement in fit showed that this reduced model did not fit significantly worse (𝜒2 difference test = 10.79,p > .05;RMSEA = .02;CFI = .98;TLI = .97).Thus, we have evidence that our theoretical model is preferable to the saturated model as it is more parsimonious yet does not fit the data significantly worse.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The finding that most respondents found blue-collar jobs is in accordance with prior research on the type of industries in which former prisoners get hired.

    “This finding is in accordance with those of prior research aimed at examining the type of industries in which former prisoners get hired (Pager, 2007;Visher et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Pager, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Visher et al., 2008

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Health limitations may compromise adult roles and statuses, strengthening the relationship between physical mobility issues and criminal reoffending.

    “we further anticipate that these health limitations may compromise roles and statuses in adulthood in the form of blocked job opportunities, family conflict, and financial hardship that further strengthen the relationship between physical mobility issues and criminal reoffending.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Poor physical health and declines in self-rated health over time are directly associated with criminal onset.

    “poor physical health, and declines in self-rated health over time, were directly associated with criminal onset.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schroeder et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Depression was linked with reincarceration through two significant three-path indirect processes, with family conflict central to both: depression → family conflict → crime → reincarceration, and depression → family conflict → financial hardship → reincarceration.

    “In addition, depression was linked with reincarceration through two significant three-path indirect processes, with family conflict central to both.The processes involve depression leading to family conflict that, in turn, leads to crime and then reincarceration or to financial hardship and then reincarceration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: There are no unmeasured confounders that would explain the observed relationships between health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.
    • Rests on an assumption: The specified structural model correctly represents the causal ordering among health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    SVORI could have reduced family conflict further and promoted employment had physical health and depression been given a more prominent role in programs.

    “SVORI could have reduced family conflict further and promoted employment had physical health and depression been given a more prominent role in programs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Health was measured at baseline because it did not change dramatically over the observation period and for modeling parsimony.

    “For this reason, among other considerations such as modeling parsimony, we chose to measure health in this model at baseline.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both groups received the same amount of in-prison medical treatment, whereas SVORI participants received less mental health treatment than did their non-SVORI counterparts.

    “which is not surprising given both groups received the same amount of in-prison medical treatment, whereas SVORI participants received less mental health treatment than did their non-SVORI counterparts (Lattimore & Visher, 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lattimore & Visher, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The present study takes a significant step in moving toward a health-based model of desistance.

    “we take a significant step in moving toward a health-based model of desistance and outline numerous areas for future advancement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Physical health was a component of some of the reentry programs, but it did not seem to be a key focus overall.

    “Although physical health was a component of some of the reentry programs, it did not seem to be a key focus overall (Visher et al., 2017).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Visher et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    In the model, unidirectionality among certain constructs measured in the same wave was specified, and it could be argued that the effect runs in the opposite direction.

    “In our model, unidirectionality among certain constructs that were measured in the same wave was specified, and it could be argued that the effect runs in the opposite direction (e.g., some crime, such as drug use, could lead to heightened financial problems).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Cross-lagged panel models were estimated to examine the effects of one variable on later changes in the other.

    “To assess this possibility, we estimated cross-lagged panel models in which we examined the effects of one variable on later changes in the other.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Being one's best self-both mentally and physically-sets the stage for increased success securing employment and interacting with families in nonconflictual ways.

    “Being one's best self-both mentally and physically-sets the stage for increased success securing employment and interacting with families in nonconflictual ways.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Improved reentry success in the family and economic spheres promotes desistance and slows the cycle of incarceration.

    “Collectively, improved reentry success in the family and economic spheres promotes desistance and slows the cycle of incarceration.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The financial problems variable could perhaps be capturing some element of financial assistance receipt.

    “our financial problems variable could perhaps be capturing some element of financial assistance receipt.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
56 of 56

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Very few researchers have investigated the conditions that bring about transitions and successes crucial for behavior change.

    “Very few researchers, however, have investigated the conditions that serve to bring about these transitions and successes crucial for behavior change.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Much less is known about the factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of achieving employment and family milestones.

    “much less is known about the factors that serve to increase or decrease the likelihood of achieving these milestones that may serve as a turning point in one's life.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Links between mental and physical health, crime, and reincarceration, including intervening processes, have never been examined in a prior study.

    “links between mental and physical health, crime, and reincarceration, which include complex intervening processes through family conflict, employment, and economic hardship, have never been examined in a prior study.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Few studies have been aimed at examining the impact of physical health on offending.

    “few studies have been aimed at examining the impact of physical health on offending.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No study has focused on how physical mobility issues may impact the process of desistance after release from prison.

    “No study to our knowledge has focused on how physical mobility issues may impact the process of desistance after release from prison.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most studies connecting health and crime are cross-sectional.

    “most studies connecting health and crime are cross-sectional.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Research results have provided little additional insight into the mediating mechanisms between physical health and crime.

    “research results have provided little additional insight into the mediating mechanisms between physical health and crime.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Research is lacking on the complex roles both mental and physical health states play in affecting prosocial behavior among those reentering society.

    “research is lacking on the complex roles both mental and physical health states play in affecting prosocial behavior among those reentering society.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There are no unmeasured confounders that would explain the observed relationships between health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.

    “Because we use observational data, we include several key covariates to reduce the possibility that statistically significant relationships could be the result of confounding.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The specified structural model correctly represents the causal ordering among health, reentry outcomes, and recidivism.

    “we then imposed structure on the model by specifying how the constructs are related to one another (see figure 1).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Health information is often collected for other reasons at prison intake.

    “as health information is often collected for other reasons at prison intake, it may not be too burdensome for correctional authorities to redirect this information toward assessment tools to set in motion plans to improve prisoner health.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most risk assessment tools focus little on physical health.

    “Most risk assessment tools devote significant attention to criminal and behavioral history and social areas of criminogenic need, but they focus little on physical health.”
12 of 12

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Individuals experiencing mental health or substance abuse crises are quite likely to reoffend.

    “Individuals experiencing mental health or substance abuse crises are quite likely to reoffend (42).”

    From A community response approach to mental health and substance abuse crises reduced crime (2022) · cites this paper as [42]

    Section 3, “Impact of Health on Crime” (page unavailable), says people with mental illnesses may be more likely to recidivate, but describes the independent link as weak. The “Criminal history and risk” section calls substance abuse a consistent risk factor for recidivism. Neither passage establishes that people experiencing a mental-health or substance-abuse crisis are “quite likely” to reoffend. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 155 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. Acock A. C., 2013, Discovering structural equation modeling using Stata
  2. Alper M., 2018, 2018 Update on prisoner recidivism
  3. Bannon A., 2010, Criminal justice debt: A barrier to reentry
  4. Ginsburg‐Kempany K., 2017, Handbook on risk and need assessment: Theory and practice
  5. Harris A., 2016, A pound of flesh: Monetary sanctions as a permanent punishment for poor people
  6. Lattimore P. K., 2010, The multi‐site evaluation of SVORI: Methodology and analytic approach
  7. Lattimore P. K., 2009, The multi‐site evaluation of SVORI: Summary and synthesis
  8. Laub J. H., 2003, Shared beginnings, divergent lives: Delinquent boys to age (Vol. 70)
  9. Muthén L. K., 2017, Mplus user's guide
  10. 10.2307/2657381 · DOI · Paper page
  11. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, 2019, Justice Department alleges conditions in Alabama men's prisons violate the Constitution
  12. C. A. Visher J. Yahner La N. Vigne 2010 Urban Institute Press Washington DC

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Link, N. W., Ward, J. T., & Stansfield, R.
Affiliations
  • Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
  • Temple University (US)
Corresponding author
Link, Nathan W.
ORCID
Venue
Criminology
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2019-06-10
Volume
57
Issue
3
Pages
544-573
ISSN
  • 0011-1384 (ISSN-L)
  • 1745-9125
DOI
10.1111/1745-9125.12213
OpenAlex
W2950505069
Semantic Scholar
039b7a909c376eea27ff65c54f0812e8d7e41b75
Cited by
144
References
155
Citations by year
2026: 16 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 1
FWCI
29.63
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Criminology (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • CrimRxiv (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
  • Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
Keywords
desistance from crime, prisoner reentry, recidivism, mental health, physical health, incarceration, employment, family conflict, financial hardship, correctional policy

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-07.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-07.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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