The DOI matches its Crossref record; 130 of the 131 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 172 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions
Open accessAbstract
This article reviews the empirical evidence that suggests that there is a solid foundation for more systematic research attention to the ways in which interventions that seek to reduce the multiple dimensions of racism can improve health and reduce disparities in health. First, research reveals that policies and procedures that seek to reduce institutional racism by improving neighborhood and educational quality and enhancing access to additional income, employment opportunities, and other desirable resources can improve health. Second, research is reviewed that shows that there is the potential to improve health through interventions that can reduce cultural racism at the societal and individual level. Finally, research is presented that suggests that the adverse consequences of racism on health can be reduced through policies that maximize the health-enhancing capacities of medical care, address the social factors that initiate and sustain risk behaviors, and empower individuals and communities to take control of their lives and health. Directions for future research are outlined.
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161 Not checked yet · 34 Own interpretation · 5 No basis given · 1 Own method
In the paper
“and higher levels of mental health and subjective well-being (Ludwig et al., 2012).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Neighborhood and Housing Conditions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ludwig et al., 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The effects were stronger among women with low education.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hoynes, Page, & Huff Stevens, 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Large scale societal initiatives that provide households with additional income can have health consequences.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there is little systematic research on reducing racism as an explicit strategy to improve health and reduce disparities in health”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Recent analyses of the impact of the social security program in increasing income of the elderly reveals that the initial implementation of the program and subsequent increases in the level of benefits were associated with mortality declines for the elderly (Arno, House, Viola, & Schechter, 2011).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Arno, House, Viola, & Schechter, 2011
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Ten to 15 years later, the treatment group had lower rates of severe obesity and diabetes risk (Ludwig et al., 2011)”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Neighborhood and Housing Conditions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ludwig et al., 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, reducing and ameliorating the negative effects of segregation on housing and neighborhood quality can enhance health.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Neighborhood and Housing Conditions
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Despite mounting evidence that racism adversely affects health through multiple mechanisms (Williams & Mohammed, In Press)”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Williams & Mohammed, In Press
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the MTO, 4,604 low-income public housing residents in five American cities were randomized to a treatment group and two comparison groups.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Neighborhood and Housing Conditions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“increased the quality of prenatal care (Barber & Gertler, 2009)”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Barber & Gertler, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 91
- Probably not a substantial claim. 10
In the paper
“There are important design differences across the various CCT studies and we are not certain of the optimal conditions (Ranganathan & Lagarde, 2012).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ranganathan & Lagarde, 2012
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Similarly, a study using changes in state EITC as a natural experiment found that state EITCs increased birth weights and reduced maternal smoking (Strully, Rehkopf, & Xuan, 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Strully, Rehkopf, & Xuan, 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Three years later, criminal victimization was lower and the health of parents and sons was better in the treatment group (Acevedo-Garcia, et al., 2004).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Neighborhood and Housing Conditions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Acevedo-Garcia, et al., 2004
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, the MTO program was too small to affect racial segregation and the concentration of poverty in the participating cities and did not assess or address either the institutional or individual mechanisms of discrimination that contribute to residential segregation (Acevedo-Garcia, et al., 2004).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Neighborhood and Housing Conditions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Acevedo-Garcia, et al., 2004
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In the Yonkers housing intervention, for example, public housing residents randomized to move to newly constructed public housing with better conditions reported higher rates of employment and lower levels of welfare use and also better health, less substance abuse, neighborhood disorder and violence two years later compared to families that had not moved (Fauth, Levanthal, & Brooks-Gunn, 2004).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Neighborhood and Housing Conditions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fauth, Levanthal, & Brooks-Gunn, 2004
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A review of housing interventions that have been evaluated for their health impact concluded that although the assessment of health outcomes has been limited in these studies, improving neighborhood conditions has been associated with better self-reported measures of health (Acevedo-Garcia et al., 2004).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Neighborhood and Housing Conditions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Acevedo-Garcia et al., 2004
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A study of the roll-out of WIC across counties in the U.S. revealed that the program increased average birth weight and reduced the incidence of low birth weight (Hoynes, Page, & Huff Stevens, 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hoynes, Page, & Huff Stevens, 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These effects were evident for both blacks and whites, but were larger for blacks.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hoynes, Miller, & Simon, 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A study using variation in the federal EITC over time and the presence of state EITC’s found that income from EITC reduced the rate of low birth weight and increased mean birth weight (Hoynes, Miller, & Simon, 2012).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hoynes, Miller, & Simon, 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This article reviews scientific evidence that suggests that health inequities can be reduced by increasing access to socioeconomic opportunities and resources, reducing cultural racism and its associated, negative images, stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination, and minimizing racism’s adverse effects by enhancing the capacity of individuals and communities to improve health.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Abstract
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A review of 13 CCT programs in low and middle income countries, all using experimental or quasi-experimental designs, found that the programs were effective in increasing the utilization of preventive health services and immunization rates, improving nutritional and health outcomes, and encouraging healthy behaviors (Ranganathan & Lagarde, 2012).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ranganathan & Lagarde, 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The program in Mexico in which families had been randomized to receive cash transfers led to reduced illness rates and child stunting (Rawlings & Rubio, 2005)”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Rawlings & Rubio, 2005
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Another study of the EITC found that additional income reduced hearing limitations among adults, but was not associated with improved self-reported health and functional limitations (Larrimore, 2011).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Larrimore, 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Other data reveal that black women born in 1967–1969 had better health status as adults and were less likely to have infants with low-birth weight and low APGAR scores than those born 1961–1963 (Almond & Chay, 2006).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Almond & Chay, 2006
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The Civil Rights policies of the 1960’s narrowed the black-white economic gap with black women benefitting more than black men (Kaplan, Ranjit, & Burgard, 2008).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kaplan, Ranjit, & Burgard, 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Great Smoky Mountain Study in North Carolina is a natural experiment that has also provided evidence that income supplements can improve health and reduce health disparities.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A meta-analysis of financial incentives in high income countries reveals that they are effective in promoting healthy behavior such as reducing, at least in the short-term, cigarette smoking and drug misuse, with the size of the effect being positively related to the amount of the financial payment (Marteau, Ashcroft, & Oliver, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Marteau, Ashcroft, & Oliver, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Health researchers have given little attention to systematically monitoring these de-segregation initiatives and to assessing their consequences for short-term and long-term educational and health outcomes.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Eliminating racial differences in test scores could markedly reduce the racial gap in educational attainment and income and consequently reduce racial inequality in health and other outcomes.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Black students score lower than white students on standardized tests of reading, vocabulary, mathematics, intelligence, and scholastic aptitude.
In the paper
“Integrated schools also enhance critical thinking skills for all students and modestly improve academic achievement for black and Hispanic students.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Orfield, et al., 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A series of controlled laboratory experiments show that a variety of affirmative action (preferential treatment) strategies are effective in recruiting women to perform in competitive environments and do not cause any losses in efficiency (Balafoutas & Sutter, 2012).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Balafoutas & Sutter, 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“At age 40, the intervention group had higher income, education, health insurance coverage and home ownership and lower rates of crime, out-of-wedlock births, and welfare assistance compared to the controls (Muennig, et al., 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Muennig, et al., 2009
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Research reveals that in addition to improving SES, active duty military service promotes marriage over cohabitation, increases the likelihood of first marriage, and leads to greater stability of marriage and these effects are greater for blacks than for whites (Teachman, 2007, 2009; Teachman & Tedrow, 2008).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Employment opportunities
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Teachman, 2007
- Not checked yetcites Teachman, 2009
- Not checked yetcites Teachman & Tedrow, 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“However, increases in the economic and social status for white immigrants over time were accompanied by more positive perceptions of these groups by the dominant native-born white population and increases in academic performance (Fischer et al., 1996; Norman, et al., 2001).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fischer et al., 1996
- Not checked yetcites Norman, et al., 2001
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Additional income was also associated with increased adolescent obesity among Indian families whose incomes were low before the receipt of the casino income with no effect for those families whose income was high (Akee, Simeonova, Copeland, Angold, & Costello, 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Akee, Simeonova, Copeland, Angold, & Costello, 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The effect was seen only in the youngest cohort (age 12 when the supplements began) who had had the longest exposure to the additional income with no effect evident in the two older cohorts (age 14 and age 16 at the initial supplement).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Costello, Erkanli, Copeland, & Angold, 2010
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This study also found that the additional income received by adolescents was associated with higher levels of education and lower incidence of minor criminal offenses in young adulthood and the elimination of racial disparities on both of these outcomes (Akee, Copeland, Keeler, Angold, & Costello, 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Akee, Copeland, Keeler, Angold, & Costello, 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The program also reduces injuries, crime, and substance use in the children (Olds, 2006, 2008).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Olds, 2006
- Not checked yetcites Olds, 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This economic mobility is likely to have positive effects on the health of the adults in military households and to lead to higher academic achievement and better health for their children.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Employment opportunities
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Lynagh et al (2011) have identified conditions under which financial incentives are more likely to lead to improvements in health: they are more effective with low SES populations; there is a dose-response relationship suggesting that the size of the cash payment is important; health behaviors that are complex need a schedule of incentives designed to both initiate and sustain changes, with care”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lynagh et al (2011)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Among mothers, the NFP program increases work force participation and reduces smoking during pregnancy, subsequent pregnancies, the use of public assistance programs and rates of child abuse and neglect.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Olds, 2006
plaindirectn = 3- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A randomized natural experiment in India, examining the effects of a 1993 law that reserved leadership positions for women in randomly selected village councils, showed that there was a reduction in the gender gap in aspirations by 20% in parents and 32% in adolescents, in villages with a female leader compared to those without.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Beaman, Duflo, Pande, & Topalova, 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Greater interracial contact in school enhances tolerance, reduces prejudice and leads to greater awareness of and sympathy for victims of racial discrimination.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Orfield, et al., 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In Mexico, cash transfers protected children from being taken out of school, with the CCT program serving as a safety-net that ensured the long-term human capital benefits that are linked to completing education (de Janvry, Finan, Sadoulet, & Vakis, 2006).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Increased Household Income and Health
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites de Janvry, Finan, Sadoulet, & Vakis, 2006
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Dismantling residential segregation is one strategy that can reduce racial prejudice and improve education (Orfield, Frankenberg, & Garces, 2008).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Orfield, Frankenberg, & Garces, 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“At age 10, children who attended the preschool did not have higher IQ scores than the controls but they had higher test scores (Heckman, 2006).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Heckman, 2006
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The military is a more race-blind environment than the larger society and military service has provided disadvantaged black men increased education, higher earnings and greater occupational mobility than their civilian peers (Teachman, 2007).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Employment opportunities
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Teachman, 2007
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Racially integrated schools enhance SES because they are associated with higher graduation rates from high school, greater diversity of disciplinary training in higher education, higher incomes for minorities and greater access to networks with links to educational and employment opportunities (Orfield, et al., 2008).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Orfield, et al., 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Interventions that successfully reduce youth violence include school-based programming (Hahn et al., 2007), as well as interventions that make changes to the social context in which violence occurs (Braga, Kennedy, Waring, & Piehl, 2001).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Reducing Violence and Incarceration
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hahn et al., 2007
- Not checked yetcites Braga, Kennedy, Waring, & Piehl, 2001
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For the African American college students the intervention increased their academic performance, reduced the black-white achievement gap by one half, reduced doctor visits and improved self-reported health over the three year observation period.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education: Psychological Interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Walton & Cohen, 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A year-long field experiment in Rwanda found that a radio soap opera employing humor, drama, popular proverbs, and traditional songs reduced intergroup prejudice and conflict, although the magnitude of change was modest (Paluck, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > The Media
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Paluck, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A randomized double-blind study of women found that a similar values affirmation intervention improved their grades and reduced the male-female gap in grades (Miyake et al., 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education: Psychological Interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Miyake et al., 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Most diversity training programs are not theoretically based and fail to rigorously evaluate their impact (Er-rafiy, Brauer, & Musca, 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > Diversity Training in Medical Care and Other Societal Contexts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Er-rafiy, Brauer, & Musca, 2010
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Research reveals that fictional TV can alter attitudes and policy preferences and that the degree of influence is greater when the viewer develops emotional attachment with and empathy for the fictional character (Mutz & Nir, 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > The Media
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mutz & Nir, 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Other research reveals that exposure to high levels of physical and psychosocial stressors in early life leads to deterioration in foundational cognitive functions that are necessary for learning and academic success, and are an important contributor to SES gaps in academic achievement in children and adolescents (Evans, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 2011).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Evans, Brooks-Gunn, & Klebanov, 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This brief psychological intervention reduced the racial achievement gap and reduced the number of black students placed in remedial programs.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education: Psychological Interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the impact of diversity initiatives has not been consistently tracked and currently there is insufficient evidence to indicate an effect of diversity on organizational performance (Curtis & Dreachslin, 2008).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > Diversity Training in Medical Care and Other Societal Contexts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Curtis & Dreachslin, 2008
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A comprehensive approach to cultural competence that includes organizational, structural and clinical cultural competence interventions has the potential to improve health, address sociocultural barriers to care and eliminate disparities in healthcare and in health (Betancourt, Green, Carrillo, & Ananeh-Firempong, 2003).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > Diversity Training in Medical Care and Other Societal Contexts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Betancourt, Green, Carrillo, & Ananeh-Firempong, 2003
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“priming students with either Barack Obama or Oprah Winfrey had no effect on reducing implicit racial bias or motivation to control prejudice. Instead, the primes led to increases in symbolic racism”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > The Media
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Lybarger & Monteith, 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effective efforts to reduce racial discrimination and prejudice may also require initiatives to change the larger cultural values and images that undergird them.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Black students in the affirmation condition earned higher fall term grades in the targeted course (the course in which the affirmation was completed) and in their other courses.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education: Psychological Interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Teachers’ negative perceptions also adversely affect the standardized test performance of black students, and this effect is especially marked when black students have white teachers (Oates, 2003).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Oates, 2003
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One study found black academic performance improved and the previously documented negative effects of racial stereotypes on black academic performance declined when Barak Obama’s stereotype-defying success received major media coverage just after his nomination at the Democratic Convention and his election as president (Marx, Ko, & Friedman, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education: Psychological Interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Marx, Ko, & Friedman, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A two-year follow-up of this study found that a positive effect of affirmation on students’ GPA over two years was evident for blacks but not whites, with low achieving black students showing the greatest benefit (Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education: Psychological Interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, Garcia, Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“They also had better overall health and engaged in fewer risky behaviors (driving without seat belt, smoking, illicit use of sedatives, marijuana, LSD, cocaine, heroin) although there were no differences in medical conditions (Muennig, et al., 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Muennig, et al., 2009
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These cultural agents can also affect our emotions and the degree of positive emotions that social groups feel toward others.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > The Media
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“mass media exposure can not only prime prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination but also lead to increases or decreases in prejudice (Mutz & Goldman, 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > The Media
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mutz & Goldman, 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“media exposure to Obama reduced prejudice among viewers of political television with the effects being strongest among conservatives (Goldman, 2012).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > The Media
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Goldman, 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Positive media portrayals have also been associated with reductions in prejudice with, for example, time spent watching likeable gay characters on TV, Will and Grace, associated with lower levels of prejudice toward gays in correlational survey data (Mutz & Goldman, 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > The Media
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Mutz & Goldman, 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Societal-wide reductions in prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination will require large-scale adoption and implementation to alter deeply embedded cultural beliefs about race.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > The Media
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Improved term grades were evident for 70% of African American students but the effect was weakest among the previously highest performing black students.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education: Psychological Interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Another early childhood intervention program using a randomized controlled design, the Abecedarian project, found fewer symptoms of depression, lower marijuana use, a more active lifestyle, and significant educational and vocational benefits in compared to the controls at age 21 (Campbell et al., 2008; McLaughlin, Campbell, Pungello, & Skinner, 2007).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education – Social Policies
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Campbell et al., 2008
- Not checked yetcites McLaughlin, Campbell, Pungello, & Skinner, 2007
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One or two administrations of the intervention worked equally well and the intervention resulted in about a 40% reduction in the racial achievement gap.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Improving Socioeconomic Opportunities > Improving Education: Psychological Interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen, Garcia, Apfel, & Master, 2006
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Access to primary care is associated with smaller social disparities in health and is a likely determinant of the unexpectedly good health profiles of Cuba and Costa Rica (Starfield, Shi, & Macinko, 2005).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Medical Care as a Resource
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Starfield, Shi, & Macinko, 2005
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the receipt of medical safety net services from the Medicaid program in the state of Oregon was associated, one year later, with higher use of health care services (including primary and preventive care), lower out-of-pocket medical expenses, lower medical debt and financial stress, and better self-reported physical and mental health than the control group (Finkelstein et al., 2011; Sommers, Baick”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Medical Care as a Resource
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Finkelstein et al., 2011
- Not checked yetcites Sommers, Baicker, & Epstein, 2012
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“cultural competence training improves the knowledge, attitudes and skills of health professionals and improves patient satisfaction (Beach et al., 2005).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > Diversity Training in Medical Care and Other Societal Contexts
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Beach et al., 2005
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Research on mitigating the negative effects of racism has tended to focus on interpersonal discrimination as a stressor and has examined how individual coping strategies and resources can reduce the negative effects of discriminatory stress on health.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brondolo, Brady ver Halen, Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009
- Not checked yetcites Williams & Mohammed, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The decline was evident across the U.S., but was larger in metropolitan areas than non-metropolitan areas.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > How Dismantling Racism Can Affect Health: Positive Events
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Roth, 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Person-focused primary care is also likely better than disease-focused care in meeting the health care needs of racially stigmatized patients and reducing disparities in health (Starfield, Gérvas, & Mangin, 2012).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Medical Care as a Resource
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Starfield, Gérvas, & Mangin, 2012
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Roth (2010) suggests that the mechanism was due to an increase in trust in government and public officials.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > How Dismantling Racism Can Affect Health: Positive Events
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Roth, 2010
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“when faced with an actual instance of racism, most individuals do not feel outrage and do not confront the perpetrator of racist behavior (Kawakami, Dunn, Karmali, & Dovidio, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > Reducing Individual Level Prejudice
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kawakami, Dunn, Karmali, & Dovidio, 2009
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in 1994, the year of Nelson Mandela’s election, black South Africans reported the highest levels of happiness and life satisfaction since 1983 and for the first time, there was the elimination of the black-white gap in psychological well-being (Moller, 1998).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > How Dismantling Racism Can Affect Health: Positive Events
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Moller, 1998
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“self-reported physical health, disability and psychological distress as well as, reports of racial discrimination and perceptions that whites wanted to keep blacks down were lower at the third wave of data collection in 1988 than they had been in prior waves, and lower than they were at wave four in 1992 (Jackson et al., 1996).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > How Dismantling Racism Can Affect Health: Positive Events
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jackson et al., 1996
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 1988, Jesse Jackson was running the most successful presidential campaign ever by a black person in U.S. history and this study suggested that this positive, race-related, political event had led to better reports of health.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > How Dismantling Racism Can Affect Health: Positive Events
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jackson et al., 1996
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These conditions are: 1) the different groups must be equal in status; 2) they must have a commitment to a common goal or goals; 3) there must be cooperation among members of both groups to promote their shared goals; and 4) there must be support and encouragement from persons in positions of authority.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > Reducing Individual Level Prejudice
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Allport, [1954] 1979
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“social ties, racial identity, self-esteem, religious involvement and occupancy of social contexts with greater density of one’s racial group can buffer the negative effects of discrimination on health (Brondolo, Brady ver Halen, Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009; Williams & Mohammed, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Brondolo, Brady ver Halen, Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009
- Not checked yetcites Williams & Mohammed, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in the last 50 years, black homicide rates were at their highest between 1971 and 1974, when black trust in government was at a historic low point, and the white homicide rate was highest in 1980, when white trust in government was historically low in the final year of Jimmy Carter’s presidency.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > How Dismantling Racism Can Affect Health: Positive Events
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Roth, 2010
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These researchers viewed implicit biases as deeply engrained habits that can be replaced by learning multiple new prejudice-reducing strategies including stereotype replacement, counter-stereotype imaging, individuation, perspective taking and increasing opportunities for interracial contact.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > Reducing Individual Level Prejudice
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Devine, Forscher, Austin, & Cox, 2012
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A 2006 national survey found that although few adults (12 % of blacks and 13 % of whites) believed that they had racial biases, some 43 % of blacks and 48 % of whites stated that they personally knew someone who they believe is racist (CNN, 2006).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > Reducing Individual Level Prejudice
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites CNN, 2006
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“simple, casual interracial contact is not sufficient to reduce prejudice but if certain conditions are met, intergroup contact can be effective in prejudice reduction.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Reducing Cultural Racism > Reducing Individual Level Prejudice
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Allport, [1954] 1979
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The study found a strong inverse relationship between each indicator of continuity and empowerment and youth suicide and a strong dose-response relationship between the number of markers and the prevalence of suicide.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Effectively Addressing Health Behaviors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Chandler & Lalonde, 1998
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many of the interventions considered target policies and structures that drive some of the fundamental causes of health while others address the proximal mechanisms linking social structure to health.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Cross-Cutting Issues
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A randomized field experiment with black women who used crack found that an intervention that emphasized personal independence, power and control over health-related behaviors, economic resources and relationships was effective in reducing crack use and high-risk, and also in improving housing and employment status (Wechsberg, Lam, Zule, & Bobashev, 2004).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Effectively Addressing Health Behaviors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wechsberg, Lam, Zule, & Bobashev, 2004
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a recent study of white adolescents found that perceived discrimination based on social class accounted for 13 percent of the association between poverty and allostatic load, suggesting that other forms of discrimination may be an important but neglected contributor to social inequities in health (Fuller-Rowell, Evans, & Ong, 2012).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Cross-Cutting Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Fuller-Rowell, Evans, & Ong, 2012
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The level of political support for reducing racism is important given that powerful economic interests often benefit from the status quo and are likely to fight change (Katz, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Cross-Cutting Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Katz, 2009
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An effective approach will likely require interventions that address racism at multiple levels.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Cross-Cutting Issues
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“A governmental entity that had responsibility for improving health and reducing disparities, and the political authority and economic resources to convene various government units as well as research and advocacy groups could have an enormous impact by maximizing opportunities to leverage federal funds (Katz, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Cross-Cutting Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Katz, 2009
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This would include using contingent funding opportunities such as when a 1984 federal law used funding to encourage states to pass laws raising the drinking age to 21 (Blankenship, Friedman, Dworkin, & Mantell, 2006).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Cross-Cutting Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Blankenship, Friedman, Dworkin, & Mantell, 2006
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“prevention programs that enhance these protective resources reduce psychiatric symptoms, the number of new cases of depression and the negative effects of risk factors (Muñoz, Cuijpers, Smit, Barrera, & Leykin, 2010)”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Effectively Addressing Health Behaviors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Muñoz, Cuijpers, Smit, Barrera, & Leykin, 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“There were decreases in homelessness and being employed full time compared to women in a standard HIV prevention intervention group.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Effectively Addressing Health Behaviors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wechsberg, Lam, Zule, & Bobashev, 2004
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A study of British civil servants followed for 15 years documented that the elimination of four risk factors (high blood pressure, cholesterol, glucose and cigarette smoking) reduced CHD mortality by 73% and SES gaps in mortality by 86%, with smoking cessation making the largest contribution to these reductions (Kivimäki et al., 2008).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Effectively Addressing Health Behaviors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kivimäki et al., 2008
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“research from Iran indicates that social factors still matter for health in the context of primary care and highlight the need to incorporate addressing social factors in the delivery of care (Jafari, Eftekhar, Pourreza, & Mousavi, 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Medical Care as a Resource
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Jafari, Eftekhar, Pourreza, & Mousavi, 2010
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For homeless and unstably housed persons living with HIV, an intervention (RCT) that provided stable housing was effective in reducing risk behavior, increasing access to care, and increasing adherence to medication regimen (Wolitski et al., 2010).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Effectively Addressing Health Behaviors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wolitski et al., 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Currently, the economic benefits and cost savings from many non-medical interventions are not directly experienced by insurers who pay for healthcare services or the social program or agency that delivered the service resulting in the savings neither being realized nor reinvested in the programs that need them to serve more clients (Katz, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Cross-Cutting Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Katz, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The experience of Japan shows that dramatic improvement in health and reductions in income inequality and SES and regional inequalities in health, on a large scale, is possible.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Conclusion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ikeda et al., 2011
hedgeddirectSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 1960, Japan had lower life expectancy than many countries in the world including the United States but currently has the world’s longest life expectancy at birth (Ikeda et al., 2011).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Conclusion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ikeda et al., 2011
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Journalists have a preference for a non-optimal frame but they are responsive when provided with information about an alternative frame (Hinnant, Oh, Caburnay, & Kreuter, 2011).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Cross-Cutting Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hinnant, Oh, Caburnay, & Kreuter, 2011
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“taxes on alcohol and tobacco products, banning smoking in public places, restricting the access of minors to tobacco, reducing the co-payments of patients for smoking cessation products, and point of service signs that encourage physical activity are effective in changing behaviors (Bloom & Cohen, 2007; Katz, 2009).”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Effectively Addressing Health Behaviors
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bloom & Cohen, 2007
- Not checked yetcites Katz, 2009
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Black students score lower than white students on standardized tests of reading, vocabulary, mathematics, intelligence, and scholastic aptitude.
“Blacks score lower than whites on standardized tests of reading, vocabulary and math and on tests that attempt to measure intelligence and scholastic aptitude.”
The paper relies on this without support.
In the early 20th century, black students in northern U.S. states outperformed most white immigrant students.
“At that time, blacks in northern states out-performed most white immigrants.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Many strategies to reduce implicit bias used in cognitive neuroscience are effective only in the short term, 24 hours or less.
“A major limitation of many of the strategies to reduce implicit bias used in cognitive neuroscience is that they have been shown to be effective in the short term (24 hours or less).”
The paper relies on this without support.
In most studies of implicit bias reduction strategies, participants did not engage in the strategy with the intent of reducing implicit bias.
“in most of these studies, the participants did not engage in the strategy with the intent of reducing implicit bias.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The military's rationalized hiring, promotion, and pay system increased minority representation and reduced wage gaps.
“The military’s rationalized system of hiring, promotion and pay has been credited for increasing the representation of minorities and reducing wage gaps.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Automated underwriting systems in credit applications improved approval rates for minorities.
“the use of automated underwriting systems in evaluating credit applications improved the approval rate for minorities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Diversity training initiatives to reduce bias among managers and employers have little positive impact.
“Studies find that diversity training initiatives to reduce bias among managers and employers have little positive impact.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Practices that increase organizational accountability are effective in increasing representation of women and minorities.
“practices that increase the accountability of the organization are effective in increasing representation of women and minorities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Intergroup contact that fails to meet stringent criteria can promote exceptionalist thinking and retention of negative categorical beliefs about the stigmatized group.
“intergroup contact that fails to meet these stringent criteria can promote exceptionalist thinking with the stigmatized individual bieng viewed as different from the other members of his/her group, and with the retention of negative categorical beliefs about the stigmatized group.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most psychological interventions to reduce prejudice have focused on short-term effects, and it is unclear whether attitudinal changes are sustained over longer periods.
“A major limitation of most of the psychological interventions to reduce prejudice is that they have focused on short term effects and it is not clear if these attitudinal changes are sustained over longer periods of time.”
The paper relies on this without support.
American adults are very familiar with racism, presumably traditional racism.
“American adults are very familiar with racism (presumably racism of the traditional type).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Institutional discrimination leads to lower access to care, and cultural racism can combine with institutional processes to produce poorer quality care for stigmatized racial populations.
“Institutional discrimination leads to lower levels of access to care and cultural racism can combine with institutional processes to produce poorer quality care for stigmatized racial populations.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Health behaviors are important pathways linking racism and other basic causes to health outcomes.
“Health behaviors are important pathways that link racism and other basic causes to health outcomes.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Addressing and improving health behavior profiles can have a large impact on improving health.
“Addressing and improving health behavior profiles can have a large impact on improving health.”
The paper relies on this without support.
At the individual level, interventions addressing social and economic barriers to access to care, adherence, and healthy lifestyles lead to improvements in health.
“At the individual level, interventions that address the social and economic barriers to access to care, to adherence to medical regimens and to living healthy lifestyles lead to improvements in health.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Programs that enhance protective resources have been shown to be successful.
“Programs that enhance protective resources (such as social support and problem-solving and stress-management skills) have also been shown to be successful.”
The paper relies on this without support.
There is a growing body of research documenting co-occurrence of depression with chronic diseases like diabetes and hypertension.
“There is a growing body of research that documents the co-occurrence of depression with chronic diseases like diabetes and hypertension.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The majority of studies on behavioral vaccines focused on white and educated populations and have not been applied systematically to reducing disparities and negative effects of racism.
“However, the majority of these studies have focused on white and educated populations and has not been applied in a systematic way to reducing disparities and reducing the negative effects of exposure to racism.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Some cultural sensitivity training focusing on distinctive behavioral patterns of subgroups and failing to address implicit biases may enhance negative stereotypes and increase stereotyping and discrimination.
“some cultural sensitivity training that focuses on the distinctive behavioral patterns of subgroups of the population and that fail to address implicit biases may enhance and accentuate negative stereotypes and thus lead to increased stereotyping and discrimination.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Political support is relevant to the long-term sustainability of interventions.
“Political support is also relevant for the sustainability of interventions over the long-term.”
The paper relies on this without support.
An infrastructure to help reduce racism is needed.
“Infrastructures that support the reduction of racism are also necessary.”
The paper relies on this without support.
To seize chances to study natural experiments and policy changes with possible health effects, an infrastructure is needed to identify and fund such opportunities quickly.
“Capitalizing on opportunities to evaluate natural experiments and policy changes that may have health consequences also requires an infrastructure for the rapid identification and funding of such opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Creating the political conditions for racial and racism-related social change requires organized work to raise awareness of disparities and to communicate how racism produces and maintains them.
“This will require systematic efforts to increase awareness of the extent of disparities and effectively communicate about the role of racism in creating and sustaining these inequities.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Indeed, Black adults who report negative interactions with police (88) and Latinx youth who have experienced immigration raids and high rates of deportation in their communities (89) are significantly more likely to report medical mistrust.”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [88]
In the citing paper
“However, these approaches are not sufficient to address social determinants such as neighborhood conditions or poverty, which are also fundamental drivers of persistent health disparities.3, 8”
From Evaluating strategies for reducing health disparities by addressing the social determinants of health. (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Most evidence assessing the impact of such programs on health comes from natural experiments.(8)”
From Evaluating strategies for reducing health disparities by addressing the social determinants of health. (2016) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“Similarly, mass media interventions in the U.S. have played a role in reducing prejudice and stereotypes toward gays in recent decades [137,138].”
From Reducing Racial Inequities in Health: Using What We Already Know to Take Action (2019) · cites this paper as [138]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Effectively Addressing Health Behaviors
“There were decreases in homelessness and being employed full time compared to women in a standard HIV prevention intervention group.”
§ Racism and Health II: A Needed Research Agenda for Effective Interventions > Reducing the Health Effects of Racism: Minimizing Racism’s Adverse Effects > Effectively Addressing Health Behaviors
“was effective in reducing crack use and high-risk, and also in improving housing and employment status”
Citations
Cites
(1954) · Cited by 15,935
A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.
Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006) · Journal of personality and social psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751 · Cited by 9,708 · cited 1×
“A recent review of studies that evaluated the contact theory of prejudice concluded that intergroup contact works to reduce prejudice based on race as well as other prejudices such as those based on ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, disability, and mental illness (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006).”
BackgroundContribution of Primary Care to Health Systems and Health
STARFIELD, B., SHI, L., & MACINKO, J. (2005) · The Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1468-0009.2005.00409.x · Cited by 5,507
Morbidity and mortality weekly report
Gay, N., Gay, N., & Day, A. (1997) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0002-9343(97)89440-5 · Cited by 4,684
An fMRI Investigation of Emotional Engagement in Moral Judgment
Greene, J. D., Sommerville, R. B., Nystrom, L. E., Darley, J. M., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1062872 · Cited by 4,561
Skill formation and the economics of investing in disadvantaged children
Heckman, J. J. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1128898 · Cited by 3,559 · cited 1×
“At age 10, children who attended the preschool did not have higher IQ scores than the controls but had higher test scores (Heckman, 2006).”
BackgroundDiscrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research
Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0 · Cited by 3,371 · cited 1×
“…that social ties, racial identity, self-esteem, religious involvement, and occupancy of social contexts with greater density of one’s racial group can buffer the negative effects of discrimination on health (Brondolo, Brady ver Halen, Pencille, Beatty, & Contrada, 2009; Williams & Mohammed, 2009).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBetancourt, J. R., Green, A. R., Carrillo, J. E., & Ananeh-Firempong, O. (2003) · Public Health Reports · doi:10.1093/phr/118.4.293 · Cited by 2,327
Pager, D., & Shepherd, H. R. (2008) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131740 · Cited by 2,178 · cited 1×
“There has been inadequate research attention to the specific characteristics of workplace and institutional environments that facilitate or inhibit discriminatory behavior (Pager & Shepherd, 2008).”
BackgroundA Brief Social-Belonging Intervention Improves Academic and Health Outcomes of Minority Students
Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2011) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1198364 · Cited by 1,992 · cited 1×
“A recent RCT sought to neutralize the psychological perception of threat that many minority college students have (Walton & Cohen, 2011).”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Racism and health: evidence and needed research
Williams, D. R., Lawrence, J. A., & Davis, B. A. (2019) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750 · Cited by 2,398
“Community initiatives and efforts to build community capacity around racism may also have the potential to improve health (140, 141).”
InfluentialSelf-citationRacism and Health I: Pathways and Scientific Evidence
Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2013) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764213487340 · Cited by 1,336
Self-citationUnderstanding associations among race, socioeconomic status, and health: Patterns and prospects.
Williams, D. R., Priest, N., & Anderson, N. B. (2016) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000242 · Cited by 1,147
“…about maximizing the impact of interventions to reduce the observed gaps, there is substantial evidence now that provides clear direction and promising strategies to tackle health inequalities (Cohen & Sherman, 2014; Osypuk, Joshi, Geronimo, & Acevedo-Garcia, 2014; Williams & Mohammed, 2013b).”
Self-citationUnderstanding how discrimination can affect health
Williams, D. R., Lawrence, J. A., Davis, B. A., & Vu, C. (2019) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.13222 · Cited by 853
Self-citationThornton, R. L. J., Glover, C. M., Cené, C. W., Glik, D. C., Henderson, J. A., & Williams, D. R. (2016) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2015.1357 · Cited by 591
“Most evidence assessing the impact of such programs on health comes from natural experiments.(8) WIC has been associated with reduced rates of low birth weight, and these effects appear stronger for women with lower versus higher education levels.”
Self-citationHealth Disparities due to Diminished Return among Black Americans: Public Policy Solutions
Assari, S. (2018) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12042 · Cited by 473
“This section reviews how Williams and Mohammed (2013), Bailey et al. (2017), Reskin (2012), and Gee & Ford (2011) conceptualized Black–White health disparities as the byproduct of the structure and function of American society.”
InfluentialMeasuring structural racism: a guide for epidemiologists and other health researchers
Adkins-Jackson, P. B., Chantarat, T., Bailey, Z. D., & Ponce, N. A. (2022) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwab239 · Cited by 417
Reducing Racial Inequities in Health: Using What We Already Know to Take Action
Williams, D. R., & Cooper, L. A. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16040606 · Cited by 415
Self-citationPrather, C. M., Fuller, T. R., Jeffries, W. L., Marshall, K. J., Howell, A. V., Belyue-Umole, A., & King, W. (2018) · Health Equity · doi:10.1089/heq.2017.0045 · Cited by 465
“reducing unemployment) might facilitate long-term, sustainable improvements in health for the larger population of African American women.(139) Consistent with strategies outlined in the Department of Health and Human Services Action Plan to Prather, et al.”
BackgroundUnequal Gain of Equal Resources across Racial Groups
Assari, S. (2017) · International Journal of Health Policy and Management · doi:10.15171/ijhpm.2017.90 · Cited by 410
Discrimination in the United States: Experiences of black Americans
Bleich, S. N., Findling, M. G., Casey, L. S., Blendon, R. J., Benson, J. M., SteelFisher, G. K., Sayde, J. M., & Miller, C. (2019) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.13220 · Cited by 398
Naming Institutionalized Racism in the Public Health Literature: A Systematic Literature Review
Hardeman, R. R., Murphy, K. A., Karbeah, J., & Kozhimannil, K. B. (2018) · Public Health Reports · doi:10.1177/0033354918760574 · Cited by 224
Riley, A. R. (2017) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-017-0378-5 · Cited by 220
A Meta-Analytic Review of Racial Discrimination: Relationships to Health and Culture
Carter, R. T., Johnson, V. E., Kirkinis, K., Roberson, K., Muchow, C., & Galgay, C. (2019) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-018-9256-y · Cited by 176
Hope, E. C., Hoggard, L. S., & Thomas, A. (2015) · Translational Issues in Psychological Science · doi:10.1037/tps0000041 · Cited by 175
“In another review, Williams and Mohammed (2013a) suggested that institutional and cultural racism are linked to increased mental health risks such as depression and anxiety.”
Williams, D. R., Mohammed, S. A., & Shields, A. E. (2016) · Cancer · doi:10.1002/cncr.29935 · Cited by 193
“research indicates that addressing stress can facilitate behavioral change.(88) Prevention science must also take a more nuanced approach in tackling health disparities.”
Self-citationRacism and health: Challenges and future directions in behavioral and psychological research.
Neblett, E. W. (2019) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000253 · Cited by 164
Discrimination in the United States: Experiences of Latinos
Findling, M. G., Bleich, S. N., Casey, L. S., Blendon, R. J., Benson, J. M., Sayde, J. M., & Miller, C. (2019) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.13216 · Cited by 179
Experiencing racism in health care: the mental health impacts for Victorian Aboriginal communities
Kelaher, M., Ferdinand, A. S., & Paradies, Y. (2014) · The Medical Journal of Australia · doi:10.5694/mja13.10503 · Cited by 144
Logie, C. H., Wang, Y., Lacombe‐Duncan, A., Wagner, A. C., Kaida, A., Conway, T., Webster, K., de Pokomandy, A., & Loutfy, M. R. (2017) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.12.018 · Cited by 152
“…regarding HIV-stigma reduction strategies (Stangl et al., 2013; Nyblade et al., 2009) combined with effective strategies for reducing racism (Williams and Mohammed, 2013) and sexism (Becker et al., 2014) at institutional, societal, and individual levels in order to promote quality of life…”
BackgroundAlvarez, K., Polanco-Roman, L., Samuel Breslow, A., & Molock, S. (2022) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.21101001 · Cited by 139
Disparities in child and adolescent mental health and mental health services in the U.S.
Alegria, M. M., Green, J. G., McLaughlin, K. A., & Loder, S. (2015) · Cited by 139
Health Effects of Dramatic Societal Events — Ramifications of the Recent Presidential Election
Williams, D. R., & Medlock, M. M. (2017) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmms1702111 · Cited by 139
Self-citationMasculinity and Race-Related Factors as Barriers to Health Help-Seeking Among African American Men
Powell, W. A., Adams, L. B., Cole-Lewis, Y., Agyemang, A. A., & Upton, R. (2016) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2016.1165174 · Cited by 155
“In this way, we speak to the growing call for studies moving beyond documenting direct associations towards delineating mechanism driving them.(130) Sense of control emerged as a critical intermediary mechanism in our hypothesized model.”
Socioeconomic Status and Self-Rated Oral Health; Diminished Return among Hispanic Whites
Assari, S. (2018) · Dentistry Journal · doi:10.3390/dj6020011 · Cited by 134
Discrimination hurts: The effect of discrimination on the development of chronic pain
Brown, T. T., Partanen, J., Chuong, L., Villaverde, V., Griffin, A. C., & Mendelson, A. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.03.015 · Cited by 129
Health inequities and the inappropriate use of race in nephrology
Eneanya, N. D., Boulware, L. E., Tsai, J., Bruce, M. A., Ford, C. L., Harris, C., Morales, L. S., Ryan, M. J., Reese, P. P., Thorpe, R. J., et al. (2022) · Nature Reviews Nephrology · doi:10.1038/s41581-021-00501-8 · Cited by 140
Perceived control reduces mortality risk at low, not high, education levels.
Turiano, N. A., Chapman, B. P., Agrigoroaei, S., Infurna, F. J., & Lachman, M. E. (2014) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000022 · Cited by 121
Bécares, L., Nazroo, J. Y., & Kelly, Y. J. (2015) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.08.025 · Cited by 123
“Interventions that seek to reduce the multiple dimensions of racism have been shown to improve health and reduce health inequalities (Williams and Mohammed, 2013), and are likely to address the linked lives mechanisms that ensure the continued reproduction of ethnic inequalities in health.”
Psychosocial Factors and Hypertension
Cuevas, A. G., Williams, D. R., & Albert, M. A. (2017) · Cardiology Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.ccl.2016.12.004 · Cited by 116
Self-citationRacial Disparities in the Health Benefits of Educational Attainment
Fuller‐Rowell, T. E., Curtis, D. S., Doan, S. N., & Coe, C. L. (2015) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000128 · Cited by 109
“Third, at any given level of education, there are racial disparities in unemployment, income level, and occupational status, reflecting less favorable financial and labor market outcomes for African Americans than for whites (26).”
Social Determinants and COVID‐19 Disparities: Differential Pandemic Effects and Dynamics
McNeely, C. L., Schintler, L. A., & Stabile, B. B. (2020) · World Medical & Health Policy · doi:10.1002/wmh3.370 · Cited by 103
Wallerstein, N. B., OETZEL, J. G., Duran, B., Magarati, M., Pearson, C. R., Belone, L., Davis, J., DeWindt, L. A., Kastelic, S. H., Lucero, J. E., et al. (2019) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyz021 · Cited by 92
“CCA emphasizes human agency and community power as primary cultural strategies to confront social determinants of health [11].”
BackgroundPriest, N., Slopen, N. B., Woolford, S. J., Philip, J. T., Singer, D., Kauffman, A. D., Mosely, K., Davis, M. M., Ransome, Y., & Williams, D. R. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201696 · Cited by 83
Self-citationNeeded Interventions to Reduce Racial/Ethnic Disparities in Health: Table 1
Williams, D. R., & Purdie-Vaughns, V. J. (2016) · Journal of Health Politics Policy and Law · doi:10.1215/03616878-3620857 · Cited by 89
Self-citationLanier, Y., Sommers, M. S., Fletcher, J., Sutton, M. Y., & Roberts, D. D. (2016) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798416638189 · Cited by 89
“…that link racial discrimination to psychological well-being at earlier developmental periods, such as early adolescence, so that new strategies that mitigate the negative consequences of racial discrimination at younger ages can be developed (Shonkoff et al., 2009; Williams & Mohammed, 2013b).”
BackgroundChapman‐Hilliard, C., & Adams‐Bass, V. N. (2015) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798415597840 · Cited by 90
“Consequently, this age group is particularly susceptible to the effects of racial oppression and related deleterious mental health consequences (Hope et al., 2015; Williams & Mohammed, 2013); thus, early intervention is important for Black youths’ development and mental health (McAdoo, 2002).”
BackgroundRacism & Health: A public health perspective on racial discrimination
Cobbinah, S. S., & Lewis, J. (2018) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.12894 · Cited by 77
Institutional Racism and Health: a Framework for Conceptualization, Measurement, and Analysis
Needham, B. L., Ali, T., Allgood, K. L., Ro, A. E., Hirschtick, J. L., & Fleischer, N. L. (2022) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-022-01381-9 · Cited by 84
“Keywords Institutional racism · Structural racism · Measurement · Framework · Health disparities While most prior research on racism and health has focused on interpersonal racism, public health scholars have begun to explore the ways in which institutional policies and practices—both historic and contemporary—contrib…”
BackgroundParadies, Y. (2015) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2016.1096410 · Cited by 74
“…each of these anti-racism types overlap in practice, an observation emphasized by research findings that mutual reinforcement across various anti-racisms is most effective in foiling racism (Paluck and Green 2009; Paradies et al. 2009; Pedersen et al. 2011; Williams and Mohammed 2013).”
BackgroundTransforming institutional racism at an Australian hospital
Bourke, C., Marrie, H., & Marrie, A. (2018) · Australian Health Review · doi:10.1071/ah18062 · Cited by 76
Rubashkin, N. A., Warnock, R., & Diamond‐Smith, N. (2018) · Reproductive Health · doi:10.1186/s12978-018-0588-2 · Cited by 72
Clark, E., Cranston, E., Polin, T., Ndumbe-Eyoh, S., MacDonald, D., Betker, C., & Dobbins, M. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14603-w · Cited by 88
Griswold, M. K., Crawford, S. L., Perry, D. J., Person, S. D., Rosenberg, L. A., Cozier, Y. C., & Palmer, J. R. (2018) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-018-0465-2 · Cited by 69
“Interventions that target stress for individuals may mitigate harmful effects of experiences of racism [55, 56].”
Calling for a Bold New Vision of Health Disparities Intervention Research
Cooper, L. A., Ortega, A. N., Ammerman, A. S., Buchwald, D., Paskett, E. D., Powell, L. H., Thompson, B., Tucker, K. L., Warnecke, R. B., McCarthy, W. J., et al. (2015) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2014.302386 · Cited by 64
Self-citationPoverty, insurance, and region as predictors of epilepsy treatment among US adults
Szaflarski, M., Wolfe, J. D., Tobias, J. G. S., Mohamed, I., & Szaflarski, J. P. (2020) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107050 · Cited by 63
Racial/Ethnic Workplace Discrimination
Chavez, L., Ornelas, I. J., Lyles, C., & Williams, E. (2014) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2014.08.013 · Cited by 55
Paradies, Y. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-803678-5.00372-6 · Cited by 58
Socioeconomic status discrimination and C-reactive protein in African-American and White adults
Dyke, M. E. V., Vaccarino, V., Dunbar, S. B., Pemu, P. E., Gibbons, G. H., Quyyumi, A. A., & Lewis, T. T. (2017) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.04.009 · Cited by 54
“Association between perceived interpersonal everyday discrimination and waist circumference over a 9-year period in the Midlife Development in the United States cohort study.”
BackgroundInfluentialCoronavirus stigmatization and psychological distress among Asians in the United States
Pan, S. W., Shen, G. C., Liu, C., & Hsi, J. H. (2020) · Ethnicity and Health · doi:10.1080/13557858.2020.1849570 · Cited by 52
The Water Surrounding the Iceberg: Cultural Racism and Health Inequities
Michaels, E. K., Lam-Hine, T., Nguyen, T. T. X., Gee, G. C., & Allen, A. M. (2023) · Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/1468-0009.12662 · Cited by 56
“20,34,74 Here, we briefly summarize the pathways through which racism shapes health inequities and then turn to a more detailed discussion of how cultural racism functions to sustain and amplify those processes.”
BackgroundStructural racism theory, measurement, and methods: A scoping review
Wien, S., Miller, A. L., & Kramer, M. R. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1069476 · Cited by 46
Explaining intersectionality through description, counterfactual thinking, and mediation analysis
Jackson, J. W. (2017) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-017-1390-0 · Cited by 43
Socioeconomic determinants of food allergy burden
Warren, C. M., Bartell, T. R., Nimmagadda, S., Bilaver, L., Koplin, J. J., & Gupta, R. S. (2022) · Annals of Allergy Asthma & Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.anai.2022.07.021 · Cited by 41
Invited Commentary: Making Causal Inference More Social and (Social) Epidemiology More Causal
Jackson, J. W., & Arah, O. A. (2019) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwz199 · Cited by 40
Pervasive structural racism in environmental epidemiology
Perry, M. J., Arrington, S., Freisthler, M. S., Ibe, I. N., McCray, N. L., Neumann, L., Tajanlangit, P. S., & Rosas, B. M. T. (2021) · Environmental Health · doi:10.1186/s12940-021-00801-3 · Cited by 44
Short-Term Outcomes of a Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Institute for Nursing Faculty
O’Connor, M. R., Barrington, W. E., Buchanan, D. T., Bustillos, D., Eagen‐Torkko, M. K., Kalkbrenner, A., Laing, S. S., Reding, K. W., & de Castro, A. B. (2019) · Journal of Nursing Education · doi:10.3928/01484834-20191021-04 · Cited by 39
Anderson, R. E., Jones, S. C. T., Navarro, C. C., McKenny, M., Mehta, T. J., & Stevenson, H. C. (2018) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph15050898 · Cited by 37
“Several levels of intervention have been discussed that impact the macro to micro systems impacting Black Americans [35].”
BackgroundInfluentialRacismo e Saúde: um corpus crescente de evidência internacional
Williams, D. R., & Priest, N. (2015) · Sociologias · doi:10.1590/15174522-017004004 · Cited by 36
Self-citationHow to Measure Racism in Academic Health Centers
Adkins‐Jackson, P. B., Legha, R. K., & Jones, K. A. (2021) · The AMA Journal of Ethic · doi:10.1001/amajethics.2021.140 · Cited by 35
Harris, R. B., Cormack, D. M., Stanley, J., & Rameka, R. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117343 · Cited by 31
“This is necessary in progressing the limited but emerging range of interventions that aim to reduce racism, mitigate its health effects and improve ethnic health inequalities [50].”
BackgroundKoskinen, M. G., Elovainio, M. J., Raaska, H. K., Sinkkonen, J., Matomäki, J., & Lapinleimu, H. (2015) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/ort0000099 · Cited by 31
“Numerous review articles have found that racial/ethnic discrimination contributes to variations in health risks within racial and ethnic minorities (Brondolo, Gallo, & Myers, 2009b; Paradies, 2006; Priest et al., 2012; Williams & Mohammed, 2009; 2013a; 2013b).”
Wallace, M. E., Green, C., Richardson, L., Theall, K. P., & Crear-Perry, J. (2017) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph14070727 · Cited by 31
“Research on effective strategies to reduce health disparities requires systematic identification of policy-relevant contextual factors associated with Black infant mortality [21].”
Mittendorf, K. F., Knerr, S., Kauffman, T. L., Lindberg, N. M., Anderson, K. P., Feigelson, H. S., Gilmore, M. J., Hunter, J. E., Joseph, G., Kraft, S. A., et al. (2021) · JCO Precision Oncology · doi:10.1200/po.21.00233 · Cited by 42
A Sociological Approach to Health Determinants
Schofield, T. (2015) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781316178713 · Cited by 28
Psychosocial resilience and vulnerability in Western Australian Aboriginal youth
Hopkins, K. D., Taylor, C. L., & Zubrick, S. R. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.11.014 · Cited by 31
Measuring What Matters: Data Absenteeism, Science Communication, and the Perpetuation of Inequities
Viswanath, K., McCloud, R. F., Lee, E. W. J., & Bekalu, M. A. (2022) · The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science · doi:10.1177/00027162221093268 · Cited by 26
Developing culturally-adapted mobile mental health interventions: a mixed methods approach
Willis, H. A., & Neblett, E. W. (2023) · mHealth · doi:10.21037/mhealth-22-19 · Cited by 27
Policy solutions to eliminate racial and ethnic child health disparities in the USA
Jindal, M., Barnert, E. S., Chomilo, N. T., Gilpin, S., Cohen, A., Crookes, D. M., Kershaw, K. N., Kozhimannil, K. B., Mistry, K. B., Shlafer, R. J., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/s2352-4642(23)00262-6 · Cited by 29
Perceived Housing Discrimination and Self-Reported Health: How Do Neighborhood Features Matter?
Yang, T., Chen, D., & Park, K. (2016) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-016-9802-z · Cited by 25
“Racial discrimination, in general, undermines minorities’ life chances by reducing access to socioeconomic opportunities and introducing mental stress to daily life, ultimately affecting health (1).”
Structural racism as a fundamental cause of health inequities: a scoping review
Kısa, A., & Kısa, S. (2025) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-025-02644-7 · Cited by 38
Discrimination in the United States: Perspectives for the future
Blendon, R. J., & Casey, L. S. (2019) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.13218 · Cited by 24
Propositions for Race-Based Research in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
Johnson, K. R., Bogenschutz, M. D., & Peak, K. (2021) · Inclusion · doi:10.1352/2326-6988-9.3.156 · Cited by 26
Weersing, V. R., González, A., Hatch, B., & Lynch, F. L. (2022) · Psychiatric Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1176/appi.prcp.20210044 · Cited by 25
Unstable Housing and Kidney Disease: A Primer
Novick, T. K., Kushel, M., & Crews, D. C. (2022) · Kidney Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.xkme.2022.100443 · Cited by 22
Hahn, R. A. (2020) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-020-00799-3 · Cited by 20
Regional variation in Black infant mortality: The contribution of contextual factors
Kandasamy, V., Hirai, A. H., Kaufman, J. S., James, A. R., & Kotelchuck, M. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237314 · Cited by 21
Enhancing the use of research in health-promoting, anti-racism policy
Ferdinand, A. S., Paradies, Y., & Kelaher, M. (2017) · Health Research Policy and Systems · doi:10.1186/s12961-017-0223-7 · Cited by 21
“However, both the current body of evidence and appropriate use of existing evidence are insufficient to adequately inform the planning and implementation of anti-racism interventions [9].”
InfluentialSkin Tone and Perceived Discrimination: Health and Aging Beyond the Binary in NSHAP 2015
Monk, E. P., Kaufman, J., & Montoya, Y. (2021) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbab098 · Cited by 20
“First and foremost, this has meant focusing on the health consequences of perceived discrimination and social stress (Williams & Mohammed, 2013).”
Jemal, A., Gardiner, M., & Bloeser, K. J. (2018) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-018-0521-y · Cited by 18
DeHaven, M. J., Gimpel, N. A., & Kitzman, H. E. (2020) · Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/jep.13495 · Cited by 18
Apostolopoulos, Y., Lemke, M. K., Hosseinichimeh, N., Harvey, I. S., Lich, K. H., & Brown, J. B. (2018) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-018-0924-3 · Cited by 21
The pandemic and social experience: For whom did discrimination and social isolation increase?
Fuller‐Rowell, T. E., Nichols, O. I., El‐Sheikh, M., Burrow, A. L., Ong, A. D., & Ryff, C. D. (2022) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000561 · Cited by 21
Combating Racism Through Research, Training, Practice, and Public Health Policies
Hall, J. E., & Boulware, L. E. (2023) · Preventing Chronic Disease · doi:10.5888/pcd20.230167 · Cited by 19
Critical Clinical Social Work Practice: Pathways to Healing from the Molecular to the Macro
Jemal, A. (2022) · Clinical Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10615-022-00843-1 · Cited by 15
Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Laryngeal Cancer Care
Cox, S. R., & Daniel, C. (2021) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-021-01018-3 · Cited by 14
Valdez, L. A., Gubrium, A., Markham, J., Scott, L., Hubert, A., Meyer, J. S., & Buchanan, D. R. (2020) · Contemporary Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/j.cct.2020.106240 · Cited by 15
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Sexual Abuse and Exploitation of People with Disabilities. Final Report.
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Preface: Minority Men's Health
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Self-citationFalcone, M., Salhia, B., Halbert, C. H., Torres, E. T. R., Stewart, D. B., Stern, M. C., & Lerman, C. E. (2024) · Cancer Research · doi:10.1158/0008-5472.can-24-1359 · Cited by 16
Aboriginal health promotion through addressing employment discrimination
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“Medical racism is associated with negative stereotypes which are commonplace in American culture and brings stress to individuals who experience it (Williams & Mohammed, 2013).”
BackgroundCénat, J. M., Manoni-Millar, S., David, A., Farahi, S. M. M. M., Jacob, G., Darius, W. P., Beogo, I., & Dalexis, R. D. (2025) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-025-01316-y · Cited by 19
“…stressor that operates as a repeated, prolonged and complex trauma (Cénat et al., Cénat et al., 2021b; 2022a, b; 2023a, b, e; Kogan et al., 2022; MacIntyre et al., 2023; Paradies et al., 2015; Williams & Mohammed, 2013a, b; Williams & Williams-Morris, 2000; Williams, 2019; Williams et al., 2022).”
Exercise and the Prevention of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus
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“They acknowledged the years of inequitable policy that have disrupted access to health for communities of color (Williams & Mohammed, 2013).”
BackgroundA mental health framework from the voices of refugees
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“Williams and Mohammed (2013) therefore argue that the only way to eliminate such disparities is to have rapid improvements in the health of the disadvantaged, compared to the rest of the population.”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Washington Bothell (US)
- Venue
- American Behavioral Scientist
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2013-06-13
- Volume
- 57
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1200-1226
- ISSN
- 0002-7642 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-3381
- PMC
- PMC3863360
- OpenAlex
- W2144603842
- Cited by
- 189
- References
- 131
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 13 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 32.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Behavioral Scientist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- American Academy of Arts and Sciences
- Harvard University
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG038492, P01AG020166)
- National Cancer Institute (P50CA148596)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Gender, Health, and Social Inequality
- Keywords
- racism, health disparities, institutional racism, cultural racism, health interventions, neighborhood quality, educational quality, access to resources, employment opportunities, health policy, health care, risk-taking, community empowerment, social determinants of health
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