Nonverbal Communication and Counseling/Psychotherapy: A Review

Gladstein, Gerald A.

doi:10.1177/001100007400400307

Cited by 46Counseling Practices and SupervisionPsychotherapy Techniques and ApplicationsPatient-Provider Communication in Healthcare

Nonverbal Communication and Counseling/Psychotherapy: A Review

Gladstein, Gerald A.·1974·The Counseling Psychologist

DOI 10.1177/001100007400400307

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The quality of human care appears lower when not meeting in person, perhaps because of lack of nonverbal communication.
“In contrast, the quality of human care appears to be lower when not meeting in person, perhaps because of the lack of nonverbal communication [58].”
From Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers. (2025) · cites this paper as [58]

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Nonverbal behavior in clinician—patient interaction
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“The importance of nonverbal behavior in psychotherapy and counseling settings has not been overlooked (Gladstein, 1974; Heimann & Heimann, 1972), although attention to this communication channel lags behind research on verbal behavior in psychotherapy.”
Background
Expressing stigma and inappropriate responses prevents LLMs from safely replacing mental health providers.
Moore, J., Grabb, D., Agnew, W., Klyman, K., Chancellor, S., Ong, D. C., & Haber, N. (2025) · Proceedings of the 2025 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency · doi:10.1145/3715275.3732039 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“In contrast, the quality of human care appears to be lower when not meeting in person, perhaps because of the lack of nonverbal communication [58].”
Effect of postural congruence on client’s perception of counselor empathy.
Maurer, R. E., & Tindall, J. H. (1983) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.30.2.158 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
“High levels of counselor eye contact, forward body lean, direct body orientation (Fretz, 1966), smiling (Bayes, 1972), head nodding (Gladstein, 1974), touch (Hubble, Noble, & Robinson, 1981), and certain arm and leg positions (Smith-Hanen, 1977) have been demonstrated to affect the client's positive evaluation of the…”
Background
Nonverbal behavior and perceived counselor attractiveness and persuasiveness.
LaCrosse, M. B. (1975) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.22.6.563 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Verbal and nonverbal communication of facilitative conditions.
Tepper, D. T., & Haase, R. F. (1978) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.25.1.35 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Nonverbal communication in one-to-one music performance instruction
Kurkul, W. W. (2007) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735607070385 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“Second, there is an inconsistency in what major nonverbal behavioral categories are considered the most salient for one-to-one music performance instruction settings (Gladstein, 1974).”
Background
Nonverbal communication and counseling outcome.
Hill, C. E., Siegelman, L., Gronsky, B. R., Sturniolo, F., & Fretz, B. R. (1981) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.28.3.203 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Counseling Process Research: Philosophical and Methodological Dilemmas
Hill, C. E. (1982) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000082104003 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Benefits and Harms of Large Language Models in Digital Mental Health
De Choudhury, M., Pendse, S. R., & Kumar, N. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/y8ax9 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Delivering group treatment via videoconference to individuals with traumatic brain injury: A feasibility study
Tsaousides, T., D'Antonio, E., Varbanova, V., & Spielman, L. (2014) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2014.907186 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Videoconferencing allows patients and clinicians to see and hear one another, providing both verbal and nonverbal communication, an important component of psychological interventions (Gladstein, 1974).”
Background
Counselor nonverbal behaviors and client evaluations.
Fretz, B. R., Corn, R., Tuemmler, J. M., & Bellet, W. (1979) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.26.4.304 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The Effect of Nonverbal Skills Training on Counselor Trainee Nonverbal Sensitivity and Responsiveness and on Session Impact and Working Alliance Ratings
Grace, M., Kivlighan, D. M., & Kunce, J. T. (1995) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.1995.tb01792.x · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Verbal and nonverbal behavior in judgments of facilitative conditions.
Seay, T. A., & Altekruse, M. K. (1979) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.26.2.108 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Comparisons of two expressed emotion scales with the Camberwell family interview
Kazarian, S. S., MALLA, A. K., Baker, B., & Cole, J. D. (1990) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199005)46:3 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Human Communication and Effective Interpersonal Relationships: An Analysis of Client Counseling and Emotional Stability
Adigwe, P. K., & Okoro, E. A. (2016) · International Journal of Economics & Management Sciences · doi:10.4172/2162-6359.1000336 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Both qualitative and quantitative communication studies of recent years consistently determined that many organizations evaluated communication competence and skills as the most significant factor for cultivating human relationships in addition to improving job performance, productivity, and group cohesion [23-25].”
Background
Eye Contact and Communication of Facilitative Conditions
Kelly, E. W., & True, J. H. (1980) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1980.51.3.815 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Power of nonverbal cues in counseling interactions: Availability, vividness, or salience?
Robbins, E. S., & Haase, R. F. (1985) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.32.4.502 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Spatial environments and verbal conditioning in a quasi-counseling interview.
Haase, R. F., & DiMattia, D. J. (1976) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.23.5.414 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Patterns of utilization and a case illustration of an interactive text-based psychotherapy delivery system
Nitzburg, G. C., & Farber, B. A. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22718 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The Future of Psychotherapy Research and Neuroscience: Introducing the 4E/MoBI Approach to the Study of Patient–Therapist Interaction
Costa‐Cordella, S., Grasso‐Cladera, A., & Parada, F. J. (2024) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1177/10892680231224399 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Facial expressions serve as essential non-verbal communication tools in therapy, aiding in the development of empathy and attunement between therapists and clients (Del Giacco et al., 2020; Gladstein, 1974).”
Background
Meanings of counselor nonverbal gestures: Fixed or interpretive?
Young, D. W. (1980) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0167.27.5.447 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Holistic Listening
Rowan, J. P. (1986) · Journal of Humanistic Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022167886261007 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Communicator Style Differences in Formal vs. Informal Therapeutic Relationships
Pettegrew, L. S., & Thomas, R. C. (1978) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.1978.11923747 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Effects of Counselor's Eye Contact on Student-Clients' Perceptions
Kelly, E. W. (1978) · Perceptual and Motor Skills · doi:10.2466/pms.1978.46.2.627 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Nonverbal Behavior Research and Psychotherapy
Davis, M. (1985) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-4820-7_5 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cross‐Cultural Counseling and Neurolinguistic Mirroring With Native American Adolescents
Sandhu, D. S., Reeves, T. G., & Portes, P. R. (1993) · Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.1993.tb00589.x · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Counselor Educator Nonverbal Behavior in the Supervision Process
Wilbur, M., & Roberts‐Wilbur, J. (1976) · Counselor Education and Supervision · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6978.1976.tb02017.x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Interpersonal Skills Summary Report
Hutchins, S., McDermott, P. L., Carolan, T. F., Gronowski, M. R., Fisher, A., & DeMay, M. (2013) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e500952014-001 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Psychic Energy: The Counselor's Undervalued Resource
Pulvino, C. J. (1975) · The Personnel and Guidance Journal · doi:10.1002/j.2164-4918.1975.tb04167.x · Cited by 6 · see citing works
The Art of Intersubjective Dialogue: How to Make Partnership Sustainable
Franzenburg, G. (2021) · Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education · doi:10.2478/dcse-2021-0016 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Nonverbal behaviors of "good" and "poor" counselors.
Lee, D. Y., & Hallberg, E. T. (1982) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-0167.29.4.414 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
A content-classified bibliography of research on the immediacy behaviors: 1965?82
Patterson, M. L., Reidhead, S. M., Gooch, M. V., & Stopka, S. J. (1984) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/bf00985988 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Categories of Nonverbal Behavior: Implications for Supervision
Wilbur, M., & Roberts‐Wilbur, J. (1980) · Counselor Education and Supervision · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6978.1980.tb00914.x · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Nonverbal Communication: Information and Application for Counselors
Schlesinger, J. S. (1978) · The Personnel and Guidance Journal · doi:10.1002/j.2164-4918.1978.tb05140.x · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Understanding the Impact of Training on Performance
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The Silent Treatment? Changes in patient emotional expression after silence
Soma, C. S., Wampold, B. E., Flemotomos, N., Peri, R., Narayanan, S. S., Atkins, D. C., & Imel, Z. E. (2022) · Counselling and Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1002/capr.12537 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Silence is not merely a by- product of the conversation (Johannesen, 1974; Levitt, 2002), but a potentially important nonverbal intervention (e.g. Gladstein, 1974).”
Somatic Empathic Resonance: Subjective and Intersubjective Experiences of the Psychotherapeutic Dyad
Lövkvist, M. (n.d.) · ProQuest Demo Repository · Cited by 2 · see citing works
THERAPIST TRAINING IN NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR: TOWARDS A CURRICULUM
Waxer, P. H. (1979) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-761350-5.50014-8 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Professional-Political Influence of Principles for Practice with Women
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Therapeutic Communication and Client Counseling: Toward a Conceptual Framework for Strategic Interpersonal Engagement
Okoro, E. A. (2018) · International Journal of Business and Social Science · doi:10.30845/ijbss.v9n6a2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Listening as a Four‐level Activity
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Categorizing Sensory Reception in Four Modes: Support for Representational Systems
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Effects of interpersonal touch on client perceptions of counselor credibility and attractiveness
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The Effect Of Seating Orientation And A Spatial Boundary On Students' Experience Of Person-Centered Counseling
Lattimore, K. (2013) · eCommons (Cornell University)
Degree of Client Manifest Anxiety as a Function of Interaction Distance: An Investigation of the Female-Female Counseling Dyad
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Interpersonal Relationship Skill of Staff Nurses
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Authors: Gladstein, G. A.
Affiliations: University of Rochester (US)
Corresponding author: Gladstein, Gerald A.
Venue: The Counseling Psychologist
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 1974-09
Volume: 4
Issue: 3
Pages: 34-57
ISSN: 0011-0000 (ISSN-L)
1552-3861
DOI: 10.1177/001100007400400307
OpenAlex: W2132084060
Cited by: 44
References: 129
Citations by year: 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 2 · 2016: 1 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 1
FWCI: 4.44
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: The Counseling Psychologist (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Counseling Practices and Supervision
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Patient-Provider Communication in Healthcare
Keywords: nonverbal communication, counseling, psychotherapy, body language, therapeutic relationship

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