Methylenedioxymethamphetamine is a connectogen with empathogenic, entactogenic, and still further connective properties: It is time to reconcile “the great entactogen-empathogen debate
Open accessAbstract
Science on methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and MDMA-like substances is faced with the unique situation that this class of psychoactive agents is referred to with two basic names for its effects on the mind: empathogens and entactogens. Empathogen usually refers to the prosocial, empathetic, and openness properties of MDMA, while entactogen usually refers to the introspective and self-awareness properties of this substance. We review the origin and usage of the two terms, and also review recent findings that support that MDMA is an empathogen and an entactogen. Mostly no specified reasons can be detected whether research groups employ the term “entactogenic,” “empathogenic,” both, or neither, in their publications. A case is made that the use of two basic names for the effects on the mind for the same class of psychoactive substances is not warranted because a holistic principle underlies empathogenic and entactogenic properties of MDMA: an intense feeling of connection. Entactogenic characterizes being deeply connected to oneself, and empathogenic being deeply connected to others. We therefore suggest the name connectogen as the new basic name for the mind effects of MDMA and MDMA-like substances, a term having the connotation of producing a joining together/producing a connection. Thus, MDMA is basically a connectogen with at least the two major connective properties: entactogenic (intrapersonal) and empathogenic (interpersonal). Furthermore, first evidence shows that MDMA might also have further connectogenic properties such as a strong sense of connection with the here-and-now, the body, the world, and with spiritual principles. Finally, we compare connectogenic properties of MDMA with connectogenic properties of classic psychedelics, and lay out some future research in this regard.
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MDMA primarily stimulates the release of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, while also promoting oxytocin release.
“MDMA primarily stimulates the release of serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE), and dopamine (DA), while also promoting oxytocin release.”
From Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach (2025) · cites this paper as [79]
The Abstract passage in our copy says MDMA produces subjective effects mainly through the release of serotonin, norepinephrine, and oxytocin. It does not include dopamine among those substances; a search for “dopamine” found no passage supporting that part of the claim. No page number is provided in the indexed copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMDMA increases authenticity, self-acceptance, and introspection, supporting reflective functioning.
“Research shows MDMA increases authenticity, self-acceptance, and introspection, all supporting reflective functioning (79).”
From Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach (2025) · cites this paper as [79]
The Abstract (page unavailable) describes MDMA’s introspective dimension and quotes a report of looking inward to understand oneself. It also discusses empathy for oneself, but does not establish increases in authenticity or self-acceptance as distinct outcomes. The connection to reflective functioning is not assessed in the cited paper. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMDMA fosters trust, openness, and social bonding, essential for a strong therapeutic alliance.
“Research suggests that MDMA fosters trust, openness, and social bonding, essential for a strong therapeutic alliance (79).”
From Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach (2025) · cites this paper as [79]
The paper’s Abstract (page unavailable) describes MDMA-associated feelings of connection to others, including a patient’s sense of connection with her therapist. That supports the social-bonding aspect, but the passages do not establish that MDMA fosters trust or openness or that these effects are essential to a strong therapeutic alliance. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMDMA enhances positive emotional experiences while blunting negative ones.
“Additionally, MDMA enhances positive emotional experiences while blunting negative ones, potentially reducing defensive responses and increasing emotional flexibility (79, 150).”
From Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach (2025) · cites this paper as [79]
The paper’s Abstract (page unavailable) describes MDMA-associated experiences of intense love and connection, supporting the positive-emotion part of the claim. It does not say that MDMA blunts negative emotions; its example of a person feeling connected to her fears does not establish that effect. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMDMA reduces social defensiveness and increases authenticity, enabling greater ownership of emotions and actions.
“Research suggests that MDMA reduces social defensiveness and increases authenticity, enabling individuals to take greater ownership of their emotions and actions (79).”
From Psychoanalytically informed MDMA-assisted therapy for pathological narcissism: a novel theoretical approach (2025) · cites this paper as [79]
The paper’s Abstract describes MDMA-associated connection to oneself and others, including an account of gaining a deeper understanding of oneself. That supports the claim’s general idea of greater self-connection, but our copy does not say MDMA reduces social defensiveness or enables greater ownership of emotions and actions. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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- Authors
- Stocker, K., & Liechti, M. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Basel (CH)
- Corresponding author
- Stocker, Kurt
- Venue
- Journal of Psychopharmacology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2024-07-28
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 685-689
- ISSN
- 0269-8811 (ISSN-L)
- 1461-7285
- PMC
- PMC11311894
- OpenAlex
- W4401061435
- Cited by
- 19
- References
- 30
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 2
- FWCI
- 9.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Psychopharmacology (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Repository for Publications and Research Data (ETH Zurich) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- ETH Zürich Research Collection
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychedelics and Drug Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Paranormal Experiences and Beliefs
- Life Sciences › Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutics › Pharmacology › Alkaloids: synthesis and pharmacology
- Keywords
- methylenedioxymethamphetamine, MDMA, entactogens, sense of connection, self-awareness, prosocial effects, classic psychedelics
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Hallucinogens, Humans, Psychotropic Drugs, N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine
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