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The Origin of Cultural Differences in Cognition: The Social Orientation Hypothesis
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A large body of research documents cognitive differences between Westerners and East Asians. Westerners tend to be more analytic and East Asians tend to be more holistic. These findings have often been explained as being due to corresponding differences in social orientation. Westerners are more independent and Easterners are more interdependent. However, comparisons of the cognitive tendencies of Westerners and East Asians do not allow us to rule out alternative explanations for the cognitive differences, such as linguistic and genetic differences, as well as cultural differences other than social orientation. In this review we summarize recent developments that provide stronger support for the social orientation hypothesis.
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“For instance, people living in societies that emphasize interdependence in social coordination (such as Japan) tend to reflect on the mental states of others more, define the self through relationships with others, and are better able to avoid underweighting contextual information, relative to people living in more independent contexts (such as the USA) 92,93 .”
From Predictors and consequences of intellectual humility (2022) · cites this paper as [93]
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“More generally, societies that emphasize interdependence rather than independence are more likely to promote relational goals, pay attention to social cues, define the self as embedded within one's social environment and display social context vigilance 92-95 .”
From Predictors and consequences of intellectual humility (2022) · cites this paper as [93]
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“Validation is essential when applying a measure in a new culture, as culture influences both behavior and cognition (Han, 2010, 297–88; Varnum et al., 2010, 9–13; Millar et al., 2013, 138– 57).”
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Time Estimation Deficits in Childhood Mathematics Difficulties
Hurks, P. P. M., & van Loosbroek, E. (2012) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219412468161 · Cited by 24
Dang, J., & Liu, L. (2024) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2024.123683 · Cited by 24
Symbolic transport choice across national cultures: theoretical considerations for research design
Ashmore, D., Christie, N., & Tyler, N. (2017) · Transportation Planning and Technology · doi:10.1080/03081060.2017.1355882 · Cited by 23
Clancy, R. F. (2019) · Science and Engineering Ethics · doi:10.1007/s11948-019-00108-0 · Cited by 20
How Culture Shapes the Reading of Fairy Tales: A Cross-Cultural Approach
Zhang, Y., & Lauer, G. (2015) · Comparative Literature Studies · doi:10.5325/complitstudies.52.4.0663 · Cited by 20
Context-sensitive attention is socialized via a verbal route in the parent-child interaction
Köster, M., & Kärtner, J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0207113 · Cited by 20
Ma‐Kellams, C. (2020) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1177/1089268019901270 · Cited by 25
Xu, Y., Wen, F., Zuo, B., & Rhodes, M. (2022) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-022-01306-1 · Cited by 18
Comprehension of disaster pictorials across cultures
Blees, G. J., & Mak, W. M. (2012) · Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development · doi:10.1080/01434632.2012.715798 · Cited by 19
“Because Dutch and American people both belong to a more western intellectual tradition, whereas Chinese belong to the East Asian tradition (Varnum et al. 2010), Dutch people presumably have a cognitive style similar to that of North Americans.”
BackgroundPromotional Games: Trick or Treat?
Briley, D. A., Danziger, S., & Li, E. (2017) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1007 · Cited by 19
Cross-cultural differences in figure–ground perception of cartographic stimuli
Stachoň, Z., Šašinka, Č., Čeněk, J., Štěrba, Z., Angsüsser, S., Fabrikant, S. I., Štampach, R., & Morong, K. (2018) · Cartography and Geographic Information Science · doi:10.1080/15230406.2018.1470575 · Cited by 21
“Our FLT results contradict the suggested theoretical model as well (Varnum et al., 2010).”
ResultResearch mentoring teachers in intercultural education contexts; self‐study
Fletcher, S. J. (2012) · International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education · doi:10.1108/20466851211231639 · Cited by 19
Pemer, F., Sieweke, J., Werr, A., Birkner, S., & Mohe, M. (2014) · Journal of Purchasing and Supply Management · doi:10.1016/j.pursup.2014.05.002 · Cited by 19
Cultural Differences in Perceiving Sounds Generated by Others: Self Matters
Cao, L., & Groß, J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01865 · Cited by 23
Yu, Q., King, A. P. J., Yoon, C., Liberzon, I., Schaefer, S. M., Davidson, R. J., & Kitayama, S. (2021) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108050 · Cited by 18
“Moreover, this work has linked these differences to the construal of the self as independent or interdependent (Kitayama & Uskul, 2011; Varnum, Grossman, Kitayama, & Nisbett, 2010).”
Self-citationKwon, J. Y., Wormley, A. S., & Varnum, M. E. W. (2021) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108087 · Cited by 23
Self-citationThe Holistic Life-Crafting Model: a systematic literature review of meaning-making behaviors
van Zyl, L. E., Custers, N. C. M., Dik, B. J., van der Vaart, L., & Klibert, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1271188 · Cited by 26
Metadata
- Authors
- Varnum, M. E. W., Grossmann, I., Kitayama, S., & Nisbett, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Varnum, Michael E. W.
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2010-02
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 9-13
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- PMC
- PMC2838233
- OpenAlex
- W2119537973
- Cited by
- 566
- References
- 33
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 45 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 35 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 36 · 2017: 48 · 2016: 39 · 2015: 39 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 32.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG029509)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Categorization, perception, and language
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- cultural differences in cognition, social orientation, individualism-collectivism, cross-cultural cognition
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