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Cited by 639Cultural Differences and ValuesSocial and Intergroup PsychologyPersonality Traits and Psychology

A cultural task analysis of implicit independence: Comparing North America, Western Europe, and East Asia.

Kitayama, Shinobu, Park, Hyekyung, Sevincer, A. Timur, Karasawa, Mayumi, Uskul, Ayse K.·2009·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
DOI 10.1037/a0015999
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Abstract

Informed by a new theoretical framework that assigns a key role to cultural tasks (culturally prescribed means to achieve cultural mandates such as independence and interdependence) in mediating the mutual influences between culture and psychological processes, the authors predicted and found that North Americans are more likely than Western Europeans (British and Germans) to (a) exhibit focused (vs. holistic) attention, (b) experience emotions associated with independence (vs. interdependence), (c) associate happiness with personal achievement (vs. communal harmony), and (d) show an inflated symbolic self. In no cases were the 2 Western European groups significantly different from one another. All Western groups showed (e) an equally strong dispositional bias in attribution. Across all of the implicit indicators of independence, Japanese were substantially less independent (or more interdependent) than the three Western groups. An explicit self-belief measure of independence and interdependence showed an anomalous pattern. These data were interpreted to suggest that the contemporary American ethos has a significant root in both Western cultural heritage and a history of voluntary settlement. Further analysis offered unique support for the cultural task analysis.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Using a cultural task analysis, the paper reports that North Americans show stronger implicit independence than Western Europeans (British and Germans), while Japanese are substantially less independent/more interdependent than all three Western groups. The explicit Singelis self-belief measure did not follow this pattern, and within-culture correlations among implicit independence measures were near zero.

Key findings

  • Across implicit measures, the overall pattern was U.S. > Western Europe > Japan, except for dispositional bias: all three Western groups showed an equally strong dispositional bias, with no significant U.S.–U.K.–Germany differences, while Japan was weaker (U.S. vs. Japan d = 0.70). Mean effect sizes were U.S. vs. Japan = 0.87, U.S. vs. Germany = 0.30, U.S. vs. U.K. = 0.28, U.K. vs. Japan = 0.60, Germany vs. Japan = 0.58, and U.K. vs. Germany = 0.02.
  • Focused attention: Americans were less holistic than British and Germans, who were less holistic than Japanese (U.S. vs. Japan d = 0.67); the two European groups did not differ. Disengaging-minus-engaging emotion scores were U.S. = .53, U.K. = .23, Germany = .16, and Japan = −.47, with U.S. > both European groups > Japan (U.S. vs. Japan d = 1.47) and no European difference.
  • Personal-minus-social happiness regression coefficients were U.S. = .16, U.K. = .00, Germany = −.15, and Japan = −.38; the U.S. differed from Germany and Japan but not the U.K., and Japan differed from the U.K. and U.S. but not Germany. Symbolic self-inflation means were U.S. = 6.22, Germany = 4.45, U.K. = 3.00, and Japan = −.44; the U.S. exceeded the U.K., the combined European groups were lower than the U.S., and Japan did not differ from zero.
  • On the explicit Singelis scale, Germans were most independent (.57), followed by Japanese (.30), while Americans (−.01) and British (.00) were least independent; contrasts comparing Germans to Japanese, Japanese to Americans, and Japanese to British were significant (ps < .005). Correlations among the implicit measures were largely unsystematic: 27 of 51 correlations were positive and 24 negative, with an overall mean correlation of .01 across the four countries.

Methods

  • Final samples were 94 European Americans (32 men, 62 women; M age = 18.69), 125 Caucasian Germans (39 men, 84 women, 2 unidentified; M age = 26.84), 95 Caucasian British (12 men, 79 women, 4 unidentified; M age = 20.53), and 122 Japanese undergraduates (90 from Kyoto University: 67 men, 25 women, 8 unidentified, M age = 21.24; 32 from Tokyo Woman’s Christian University, all women, M age = 20.07).
  • Five implicit measures were used: dispositional bias in attribution vignettes, the Framed Line Task for focused vs. holistic attention, the Implicit Social Orientation Questionnaire (ISOQ) for disengaging vs. engaging emotions and for personal vs. social correlates of happiness, a sociogram task for symbolic self-inflation, and the Singelis self-construal scale for explicit independence/interdependence. Materials were translated and back-translated for Japanese and German.
  • Participants were tested in small groups in their native language. The ISOQ was omitted in Japan because of time constraints; the authors substituted relevant ISOQ data from Kitayama, Mesquita, and Karasawa (2006, Study 2), which had 55 Kyoto University students (20 males, 35 females). Analyses used ANOVAs with country and gender, within-subject factors, contrasts, effect sizes, and within-country correlations.

Limitations

  • The paper states that Framed Line Task alphas were no greater than .6 in all cases, so interpretation requires caution. It also notes that the ISOQ was originally developed in the U.S. and Japan and may contain more noise outside those countries, though the authors report that R² was not higher in the U.S. and Japan and that reliability variation appeared unrelated to the cross-cultural happiness pattern.
  • The paper states that the ISOQ was omitted in Japan due to time constraints and that Japanese ISOQ measures came from a prior study’s subset. It also states that historical inference about voluntary settlement cannot be conclusive; the authors use two European groups for triangulation and call for future work with different populations, locations, and other voluntary settlers.
  • Evident from the text: the design is cross-sectional and cannot directly test the historical voluntary-settlement hypothesis; samples are undergraduates, and German participants were older on average, although preliminary age-covariate analyses showed no age effect. The explicit self-belief measure produced an anomalous pattern, and the near-zero within-culture correlations complicate treating independence/interdependence as a coherent individual-level construct.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/a0015999

Cites

132 of 132 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 42 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § Abstract

    North Americans are more likely than Western Europeans (British and Germans) to exhibit focused (vs. holistic) attention.

    “North Americans are more likely than Western Europeans (British and Germans) to 1) exhibit focused (vs. holistic) attention”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Abstract

    The two Western European groups (British and Germans) were not significantly different from one another in any case.

    “In no cases were the two Western European groups significantly different from one another.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given
    § Abstract

    An explicit self-belief measure of independence and interdependence showed an anomalous pattern.

    “An explicit self-belief measure of independence and interdependence showed an anomalous pattern.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Abstract

    North Americans are more likely than Western Europeans (British and Germans) to associate happiness with personal achievement (vs. communal harmony).

    “3) associate happiness with personal achievement (vs. communal harmony)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Abstract

    Across all implicit indicators of independence, Japanese were substantially less independent (or more interdependent) than the three Western groups.

    “Across all the implicit indicators of independence, Japanese were substantially less independent (or more interdependent) than the three Western groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 33
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 30
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results and Discussion

    The Japanese mean difference score was negative, indicating that their happiness depended more on social engagement than on social disengagement.

    “As shown in Figure 5, the Japanese mean was negative ( M = -.38), t (49) = 2.70, p = .01, indicating that their happiness depended more on social engagement than on social disengagement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The unstandardized regression coefficient for disengaging versus engaging positive emotions is a valid measure of independence versus interdependence.
    • Rests on an assumption: The Japanese ISOQ data from Kitayama et al. (2006) are comparable to the current samples.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Explicit Self-Belief Measure of Independence and Interdependence

    There was an absence of any systematic patterns of correlations among the measures within each country; the overall mean correlation across all four countries was .01.

    “What is the most remarkable here is the absence of any systematic patterns of correlations. There were sporadic correlations that were statistically significant; but they were never replicated in other countries. Twenty seven out of 51 correlations were positive and 24, negative. In fact, the overall mean correlation across all the four countries was .01.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Explicit Self-Belief Measure of Independence and Interdependence

    On the interdependence subscale of the Singelis scale, Americans came out as the most interdependent and Japanese as the least so.

    “The interdependence subscale also shows an equally puzzling pattern, with Americans coming out as the most interdependent and Japanese as the least so.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Western Civilization and Voluntary Settlement

    The explicit measure of independence and interdependence (the Singelis scale) yielded findings that are neither systematic nor readily interpretable.

    “the explicit measure of independence and interdependence used here (the Singelis scale) yielded findings that are neither systematic nor readily interpretable.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Interdependence

    Western Europeans tended to be different from both Americans and Japanese in all measures except for dispositional bias, which was equally strong in the three Western groups.

    “Western Europeans tended to be different from both Americans and Japanese in all measures except for dispositional bias, which was equally strong in the three Western groups ( d s ≤ .16).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Explicit Self-Belief Measure of Independence and Interdependence

    After subtracting interdependence from independence, Germans were most independent (.57), followed by Japanese (.30), while Americans (-.01) and British (.00) were virtually no different and least independent.

    “We therefore subtracted the interdependence score from the independence score to see the relative degree of independence. Germans proved to be most independent of the four groups (.57), followed by Japanese (.30). Curiously Americans (-.01) and British (.00) were virtually no different and least independent.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The Singelis independence and interdependence self-beliefs are largely orthogonal.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Explicit Self-Belief Measure of Independence and Interdependence

    On the independence subscale of the Singelis scale, Germans were the most independent and British were the least so.

    “The independence subscale shows that Germans are the most independent, and British were the least so.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Interdependence

    In no case were the two European groups significantly different from one another, with an average effect size of virtually zero (= .02).

    “In no case were the two European groups significantly different from one another. In fact, the average effect size here was virtually zero (= .02).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results and Discussion

    All three Western means were positive, meaning Western participants reportedly experienced disengaging emotions more than engaging emotions, although this tendency was significantly stronger for Americans than for Europeans.

    “In contrast, all three Western means were positive ( M s = .16, .23, and .53), t (122) = 2.54, t (90) = 3.32, and t (93) = 7.64 for Germans, British, and Americans, p s ≤ .01. Thus, Western participants reportedly experienced disengaging emotions more than engaging emotions, although this tendency was significantly stronger for Americans than for Europeans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Interdependence

    All predicted differences reached statistical significance, except in two isolated cases where the difference between one Western European group and the U.S. failed to reach significance.

    “All predicted differences reached statistical significance, except in two isolated cases, in which the difference between one of the Western European groups and the U.S. failed to reach statistical significance (U.K. in the measure of personal vs. social happiness, Germany in the measure of symbolic selfinflation).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results and Discussion

    The German mean for symbolic self-inflation fell between the British and American means, with no significant difference from either.

    “The German mean fell between the two, with no significant difference from either of the two countries, t (208) = 1.33 and t (211) = 1.49 for comparisons with the U.K. and the U.S., respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results and Discussion

    The Japanese mean difference between disengaging and engaging emotions was significantly smaller than each of the two European means, which in turn were significantly smaller than the American mean.

    “The Japanese mean was significantly smaller than each of the two European means, which in turn were significantly smaller than the American mean (all p s ≤ .01).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Results and Discussion

    The greater accuracy in the relative versus absolute task was most pronounced in Japan, least so in the U.S., with the two European groups falling in-between.

    “As shown in Figure 3, the greater accuracy in the relative (vs. absolute) task was most pronounced in Japan, least so in the U.S., with the two European groups falling in-between.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Knowledge-Activation Approach to Culture: Is It Viable?

    Both predictions (coherence among implicit tendencies and same cross-cultural pattern for implicit and explicit measures) were contradicted by the data.

    “Again, both of the predictions were contradicted by the data.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Culture and the Self

    Various tasks linked to the mandate of independence often require individuals to distinguish themselves from the social surroundings, focus attention on objects relevant to personal goals, and make decontextualized decisions and judgments.

    “various tasks linked to the mandate of independence such as selfuniqueness, personal goal pursuit and self-promotion, and maintenance of high selfesteem often require individuals to distinguish themselves from the social surroundings, focus attention on objects that are relevant to their personal goals, and make decontextualized decisions and judgments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data
    § Abstract

    Further analysis offered unique support for the cultural task analysis.

    “Further analysis offered unique support for the cultural task analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Any given cultural task of independence or interdependence is strongly linked only to a small subset of psychological tendencies that are generally associated with the respective cultural mandates of independence and interdependence.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Abstract

    The contemporary American ethos has a significant root in both Western cultural heritage and a history of voluntary settlement.

    “These data were interpreted to suggest that the contemporary American ethos has a significant root in both Western cultural heritage and a history of voluntary settlement.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Any given cultural task of independence or interdependence is strongly linked only to a small subset of psychological tendencies that are generally associated with the respective cultural mandates of independence and interdependence.

  • May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Culture and the Self

    Attention differences exist between members of North American cultures and Asian cultures, with North Americans more focused and Asians more holistic.

    “such attention differences exist between members of North American cultures (where independence is highlighted) and Asian cultures (where interdependence is highlighted).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Masuda & Nisbett, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Interdependence

    Americans are most independent (or least interdependent) and Japanese are most interdependent (or least independent).

    “The overarching pattern is clear. Americans are most independent (or least interdependent) and Japanese are most interdependent (or least independent).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data
    § Participants

    Preliminary analyses using age as a covariate showed no effect of age.

    “Preliminary analyses using age as a covariate showed no effect of age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Results and Discussion

    Gender was included as an additional factor in all analyses, and no gender effects proved statistically significant.

    “In all analyses, gender was included as an additional factor to explore possible gender differences. No gender effects proved statistically significant in all analyses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Western Civilization and Voluntary Settlement

    Explicit self-belief measures often lack cross-cultural validity.

    “explicit self-belief measures often lack crosscultural validity”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kitayama, 2002

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Explicit Self-Belief Measure of Independence and Interdependence

    The pattern of the explicit self-belief measure was anomalous at best, in contrast to the systematic pattern of implicit measures.

    “In contrast to the highly systematic pattern observed for the measures of implicit psychological tendencies, the pattern of the explicit measure was anomalous at best.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Western Civilization and Voluntary Settlement

    Americans are, in general, more independent and less interdependent than many other cultural groups of the world.

    “Americans are, in general, more independent and less interdependent than many other cultural groups of the world.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Oyserman, Coon, and Kemmelmeier (2002)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § The Present Study

    Little is known on where Western Europeans are located on the continuum of implicit independence and interdependence.

    “little is known on where Western Europeans are located on the continuum of implicit independence and interdependence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § Explicit Self-Belief Measure of Independence and Interdependence

    The measures of implicit psychological tendencies do not cohere together within each culture despite each being reliable and cohering highly systematically across cultures.

    “Paradoxically, then, the measures of implicit psychological tendencies do not cohere together within each culture despite the fact that each of them is reliability capturing what it is designed to capture and, moreover, that they do cohere highly systematically across cultures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given
    § The Present Study

    The United Kingdom and Germany are quite distinct in terms of ethnicity, language, prevalence rates of specific denominations of Christianity, geography and traditional forms of subsistence, and institutional influences on the formation of the U.S. and American culture.

    “While seen as typical of Western European nations, these two countries are quite distinct in terms of 1) ethnicity, 2) language, 3) prevalence rates of specific denominations of Christianity, 4) geography and traditional forms of subsistence, and 5) institutional influences on the formation of the U.S. and the American culture.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § The Present Study

    Only American culture has undergone a history of settlement in a new continent and its western frontiers.

    “Only American culture has undergone a history of settlement in a new continent and its western frontiers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Western Civilization and Voluntary Settlement

    The dominant mentality of contemporary white European Americans can be traced back to Western cultural tradition and voluntary settlement.

    “By extension, it is reasonable to suggest that the dominant mentality of the contemporary white European Americans can be traced back to two important factors: Western cultural tradition and voluntary settlement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Western Civilization and Voluntary Settlement

    Japan came out as much less collectivistic or less interdependent than many other countries even including the U.S.

    “Japan came out as much less collectivistic or less interdependent than many other countries even including the U.S.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Oyserman, Coon, and Kemmelmeier (2002)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Culture and the Self

    Both self-justification and intrinsic motivation are mediated by one's desire to promote self-esteem in North America but by one's desire to maintain social approval in Asia.

    “both self-justification and intrinsic motivation are mediated by one's desire to promote self-esteem in North America but by one's desire to maintain social approval in Asia”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kitayama & Imada, in press-a

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data
    § Experimental Tasks

    The Framed Line Task errors had alphas no greater than .6 in all cases, so interpretation of results from this task requires caution.

    “Errors were moderately correlated within each task. However, the alphas were no greater than .6 in all cases. Interpretation of the results from this task, therefore requires caution.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § When a Coherent Construct Fails to Cohere

    The same concepts appear coherent and real when assessed explicitly, but not when assessed implicitly.

    “the same concepts (i.e., independence and interdependence) appear 'coherent' and thus 'real' when assessed explicitly in terms of self-beliefs, but not so when assessed implicitly in terms of habitual psychological tendencies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning
    § Western Civilization and Voluntary Settlement

    Cultural tasks require and foster a variety of habitual psychological tendencies.

    “these cultural tasks require and thus foster a variety of habitual psychological tendencies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Culture and the Mind

    When individuals are aggregated in a collective, a patterned correspondence emerges between cultural mandates and psychological tendencies.

    “when many such individuals are aggregated in a collective within a cultural group, a clearly patterned correspondence emerges between cultural mandates and psychological tendencies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Behaviors (cultural tasks) result, over time through repeated engagement, in a variety of psychological tendencies.
    • Rests on an assumption: Individuals in a given cultural group are likely to share the commitment to their culture's mandate.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Concluding Comment

    The frontier is still alive and well on the mind of individuals engaging in contemporary American culture.

    “the frontier is still alive and well on the mind of individuals engaging in the contemporary American culture.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Culture and the Mind

    Both approaches (cultural task analysis and social cognitive theories) are correct.

    “Again our position is that both approaches are correct.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Knowledge-Activation Approach to Culture: Is It Viable?

    From standard postulates, implicit psychological tendencies and explicit self-beliefs should show the same cross-cultural pattern.

    “from these standard postulates of the knowledgeactivation approach, it would also follow that the implicit psychological tendencies and the explicit self-beliefs show the same cross-cultural pattern.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Culture and the Mind

    The cultural task analysis departs substantially from and likely complements social cognitive theories.

    “the cultural task analysis departs substantially from and, thus, likely complements social cognitive theories of culture including the knowledgeactivation approach discussed above.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Interpretationcitation
    § Knowledge-Activation Approach to Culture: Is It Viable?

    A straightforward prediction is that activation of the cultural mandate leads to activation of all associated psychological tendencies.

    “A straightforward prediction would be that the activation of the cultural mandate would lead to the activation of all of the associated psychological tendencies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § When a Coherent Construct Fails to Cohere

    The constructs are recognized as meaningful and coherent at the level of individual beliefs.

    “this is the case even when the constructs themselves are clearly recognized as meaningful and coherent as the level of individual beliefs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning
    § Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Culture and the Mind

    The process depicted in Figure 1 is socio-cultural and collective in nature.

    “the process depicted in Figure 1 is socio-cultural and collective in nature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning
    § When a Coherent Construct Fails to Cohere

    Available cultural tasks represent alternative means to attain the culture's mandate.

    “available cultural tasks represent alternative means or procedures to attain his or her culture's mandate of the self as independent or interdependent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Concluding Comment

    The ways of social life including parenting are 'rational' in that they contain information about environmental contingencies previously experienced by the population.

    “[the ways of social life including parenting] are 'rational' in that they contain information about environmental contingencies previously experienced by the population and assimilated into its cultural tradition”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites LeVine, 1977

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given
    § When a Coherent Construct Fails to Cohere

    The underlying motivation for engaging in cultural tasks is to affirm the self as living up to the culture's mandate.

    “the underlying motivation for the person to engage in cultural tasks is to affirm the status of the self as living up to the standard or the mandate of the culture.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisereasoning
    § When a Coherent Construct Fails to Cohere

    People perform various cultural tasks of the relevant kind to achieve the mandate.

    “they do so by performing various cultural tasks of the relevant kind.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Knowledge-Activation Approach to Culture: Is It Viable?

    One implication of knowledge-activation theorizing is that there should be a strong link between explicit self-beliefs and implicit psychological tendencies.

    “One implication of this theorizing is that there should be a strong link between the degree to which the mandate is endorsed (the explicit self-belief measures of independence or interdependence) and the corresponding implicit psychological tendencies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Knowledge-Activation Approach to Culture: Is It Viable?

    The spreading activation theory of semantic memory holds that memory activation spreads spontaneously and automatically from higher-order to lower-order nodes.

    “the spreading activation theory of semantic memory holds that memory activation spreads spontaneously and automatically from the higher-order node (i.e., a mandate) to the lower-order features (psychological tendencies linked to the mandate) (Anderson, 1983).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Anderson, 1983

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Concluding Comment

    There is no reason to expect that such contingencies are transparent to current residents of the culture.

    “there is no reason to expect that such contingencies are transparent to the current residents of the culture at issue.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Culture and the Mind

    This collective process motivates members to pursue their cultural mandate through engagement in cultural tasks.

    “This collective process motivates members of a cultural group to pursue their cultural mandate through engagement in pertinent cultural tasks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Culture and the Mind

    Knowledge pertaining to independence or interdependence is acquired through socialization and can be 'packed in the head' to varying extents.

    “knowledge pertaining to independence or interdependence is in fact acquired through socialization and can be 'packed in the head' to varying extents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § When a Coherent Construct Fails to Cohere

    These factors are embedded in macro, societal, or collective-level contexts.

    “all these factors are embedded in macro, societal, or collective-level contexts such as social class, ecology, and political and economic conditions among others”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Berry, 1976

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Greenfield et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Inglehart & Baker, 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Concluding Comment

    The contingencies inherent in a cultural tradition are not consciously recognized or articulated by members of the culture.

    “the contingencies inherent in any given cultural tradition are not consciously recognized, much less articulated by the members of the culture.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Culture and the Mind

    Individuals are very different in terms of specific tasks they perform and psychological tendencies they exhibit.

    “individuals shown in Figure 1 are very different in terms of both 1) the specific tasks of independence or interdependence they perform and 2) the specific psychological tendencies they exhibit.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § When a Coherent Construct Fails to Cohere

    When assessed implicitly, constructs appear coherent and real at the cross-cultural collective level, but not at the within-culture individual level.

    “when assessed in terms of implicit or habitual psychological tendencies, the constructs appear 'coherent' and 'real' at the cross-cultural, collective level, but they appear not so at the within-culture, individual level.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Toward a Comprehensive Theory of Culture and the Mind

    Both tasks and psychological correlates of independence or interdependence are socially and collectively distributed.

    “both tasks and psychological correlates of independence or interdependence are socially and collectively distributed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Behaviors (cultural tasks) result, over time through repeated engagement, in a variety of psychological tendencies.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Knowledge-Activation Approach to Culture: Is It Viable?

    One may expect high degrees of coherence among pertinent psychological tendencies.

    “One may then expect high degrees of coherence among the pertinent psychological tendencies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given
    § Knowledge-Activation Approach to Culture: Is It Viable?

    Various important effects do occur as a function of knowledge activation.

    “various important effects do occur as a function of knowledge activation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Figure Captions

    The cultural task analysis accounts for global cross-cultural differences without homogenizing each of the cultures.

    “With these assumptions the cultural task analysis accounts for global cross-cultural differences without homogenizing each of the cultures.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Cultural mandates, cultural tasks, and psychological tendencies are linked to one another in a dynamic fashion.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Any given person engages in a small number of cultural tasks to achieve his or her culture's mandate.
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Each cultural task is linked to only a small subset of psychological tendencies associated with independence or interdependence.
59 of 59

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Any given cultural task of independence or interdependence is strongly linked only to a small subset of psychological tendencies that are generally associated with the respective cultural mandates of independence and interdependence.

    “The cultural task analysis therefore assumes that any given cultural task of independence or interdependence is strongly linked only to a small subset of psychological tendencies that are generally associated with the respective cultural mandates of independence and interdependence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The unstandardized regression coefficient for disengaging versus engaging positive emotions is a valid measure of independence versus interdependence.

    “The size of the resulting unstandardized regression coefficients for disengaging emotions (or engaging emotions) is a measure of independence (or interdependence).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Japanese ISOQ data from Kitayama et al. (2006) are comparable to the current samples.

    “Because the current ISOQ was a subset of the ISOQ used by Kitayama and colleagues (2006), we could obtain pertinent measures by using the relevant subset of the data from this study.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The Singelis independence and interdependence self-beliefs are largely orthogonal.

    “These self-beliefs on independence and interdependence are known to be largely orthogonal.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Individuals seek to achieve their culture's mandate of independence or interdependence in highly idiosyncratic fashion.

    “This analysis assumes that individuals seek to achieve their culture's mandate of independence or interdependence in highly idiosyncratic fashion.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Behaviors (cultural tasks) result, over time through repeated engagement, in a variety of psychological tendencies.

    “These behaviors, in turn, are assumed to result, over time through repeated engagement in them, in a variety of psychological tendencies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Individuals in a given cultural group are likely to share the commitment to their culture's mandate.

    “individuals in a given cultural group are likely to share the commitment to their culture's mandate”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Cultural mandates, cultural tasks, and psychological tendencies are linked to one another in a dynamic fashion.

    “This theoretical framework proposes that cultural mandates, cultural tasks, and psychological tendencies are linked to one another in a dynamic fashion.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Any given person engages in a small number of cultural tasks to achieve his or her culture's mandate.

    “Any given person engages in a small number of cultural tasks to achieve his or her culture's mandate.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Each cultural task is linked to only a small subset of psychological tendencies associated with independence or interdependence.

    “each cultural task is linked to only a small subset of psychological tendencies associated with independence or interdependence.”
10 of 10

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentt(212) = 0.82reported n.s. · recomputed p = .413

    “t (212) = .82, n.s.”

  • ConsistentF(3, 350) = 4.43reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005

    “F (3, 350) = 4.43, p = .005”

  • Consistentt(49) = 2.7reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .009

    “t (49) = 2.70, p = .01”

  • Consistentt(122) = 1.79reported p = .08 · recomputed p = .076

    “t (122) = 1.79, p = .08”

  • Consistentt(139) = 2.53reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .013

    “t (139) = 2.53, p = .01”

  • Consistentt(104) = 0.76reported n.s. · recomputed p = .449

    “t (104) = .76, n.s.”

  • Consistentt(181) = 2.6reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .010

    “t (181) = 2.60, p = .01”

7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

  • Kyoto participant counts sum to 100, not 90

    Minor

    The reported Kyoto breakdown is 67 men, 25 women, and 8 unidentified participants, totaling 100 rather than 90.

    Reported 90 · recomputed 100

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Medin, D. L., Unsworth, S. J., &amp; Hirschfeld, L., (2007). Cultures, categorization and reasoning. In S. Kitayama &amp; D. Cohen (Eds.), Handbook of cultural psychology (pp. 615-644). New York: Guilford Press.
  2. Oyserman, D., Sorensen, N., Reber, R., Chen, S. X., &amp; Sannum, P. (in press). Connecting and separating mindsets: Culture as situated cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
  3. Singelis, T. M. (1994). The measurement of independent and interdependent selfconstruals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20 , 580-591.
  4. Taylor, C. (1979). Sources of the self . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Kitayama, S., Park, H., Sevincer, A. T., Karasawa, M., & Uskul, A. K.
Affiliations
  • University of Michigan (US)
  • Hokkaido University (JP)
  • Universität Hamburg (DE)
  • Tokyo Woman's Christian University (JP)
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2009
Volume
97
Issue
2
Pages
236-255
ISSN
  • 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1315
DOI
10.1037/a0015999
OpenAlex
W2142544020
Cited by
639
References
132
Citations by year
2026: 33 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 38 · 2022: 40 · 2021: 47 · 2020: 100 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 39 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 33 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 28
FWCI
32.95
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) (acceptedVersion)
  • Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation (BCS 0717982)
  • National Institute on Aging (1 R01 AG029509-01A2)
  • University of Michigan
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords
cultural mandate, cultural tasks, independence, interdependence, cross-cultural comparison, emotions, happiness, personal accomplishment, communal harmony, attribution bias, self-belief, American ethos, voluntary settlement, Japanese culture, Western European culture, North American culture
MeSH terms
Achievement, Adolescent, Adult, Analysis of Variance, Attention, Cross-Cultural Comparison, Cultural Characteristics, Ego, Emotions, Europe, Asia, Eastern, Female, Germany, United Kingdom, Humans, Japan, Male, Michigan, North America, Students, Task Performance and Analysis, Personal Autonomy, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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