Flashbulb Memories
Open accessAbstract
We review and analyze the key theories, debates, findings, and omissions of the existing literature on flashbulb memories (FBMs), including what factors affect their formation, retention, and degree of confidence. We argue that FBMs do not require special memory mechanisms and are best characterized as involving both forgetting and mnemonic distortions, despite a high level of confidence. Factual memories for FBM-inducing events generally follow a similar pattern. Although no necessary and sufficient factors straightforwardly account for FBM retention, media attention particularly shapes memory for the events themselves. FBMs are best characterized in term of repetitions, even of mnemonic distortions, whereas event memories evidence corrections. The bearing of this literature on social identity and traumatic memories is also discussed.
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Objective memory accuracy and subjective memory confidence can dissociate.
“Numerous behavioral cognitive studies have observed dissociations between memory accuracy and memory confidence [89–95].”
From First-person view of one’s body in immersive virtual reality: Influence on episodic memory (2019) · cites this paper as [95]
Confidence in everyday, non-arousing EM, measured by remember/know paradigms and recollection questionnaires, declines together with objective memory performance.
“This finding is in line with several studies showing that confidence in everyday, non-arousing EM, measured by remember/know paradigms and recollection questionnaires, declines together with the objective memory performance [95,108,111].”
From First-person view of one’s body in immersive virtual reality: Influence on episodic memory (2019) · cites this paper as [95]
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Willingham, D. T., & Riener, C. R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316271988.017
Methods of Cognitive Psychology
Willingham, D. T., & Riener, C. R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316271988.003
Hadjimarkou, M. M. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_1108-1
Willingham, D. T., & Riener, C. R. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316271988.018
Hadjimarkou, M. M. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_1108
Memory footprint: Predictors of flashbulb and event memories of the 2016 Euro Cup final
Ribeiro, A., Marques, M., Roberto, M. S., & Raposo, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1116747
Pais, M. E. M., Deus, J. E. R., Souto, P. M. I., & Ares, E. M. T. (2023) · Children · doi:10.3390/children10050881
Emotional arousing events as an integral part of understanding flashbulb memories mechanism
Fu, Y. (2023) · Journal of Education Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.54097/ehss.v18i.10959
Analysis of the Factors Influencing the Degree of Stage Fright in Music Performance
王, 舒. (2023) · Advances in Psychology · doi:10.12677/ap.2023.138445
Ashton, S. M. (2024) · doi:10.26481/dis.20240321sa
Dantzler, C. D., & Markman, K. D. (2024) · Frontiers in Social Psychology · doi:10.3389/frsps.2024.1359672
Dantzler, C. D., & Markman, K. D. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hf3wa
Dantzler, C. D., & Markman, K. D. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/8urgp
Çavuşoğlu, M., & Kuşdil, M. E. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1488241
Cai, Z., & Fan, X. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5007165
Duffau, C., & Charles, C. (2025) · Journal of the American Academy of Religion · doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfaf041
Gedächtnis und Erinnerung, ihre Bedeutungen im Befragungsprozess – Neurokognitive Grundlagen
Markowitsch, H. J., & Staniloiu, A. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-48432-3_3
83Remembering in Rome: Interpretive Cognition and the Autobiographical Process
Brockmeier, J. (2025) · De Gruyter eBooks · doi:10.1515/9783112218761-005
Up in a flash: On the narratological and epistemic aspects of flashbulb memories
Brewer, M. (2025) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2025.101233
The Flashbulb-Like Nature of Memories for the Covid-19 Pandemic
Lanciano, T., & Curci, A. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-03895-1_5
- Authors
- Hirst, W., & Phelps, E. A.
- Affiliations
- The New School (US)
- New York University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hirst, William
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2016-02
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 36-41
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- PMC
- PMC4795959
- OpenAlex
- W4249075521
- Cited by
- 105
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 7.21
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH066972)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Memory, History, Trauma, Identity
- Keywords
- flashbulb memory, memory confidence, memory retention, forgetting, media attention, event memory, traumatic memory, social identity
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