Cognitive Maps: Some People Make Them, Some People Struggle
Open accessAbstract
The proposal that humans can develop cognitive maps of their environment has a long and controversial history. We suggest an individual-differences approach to this question instead of a normative one. Specifically, there is evidence that some people derive flexible maplike representations from information acquired during navigation, whereas others store much less accurate information. Our research uses a virtual-reality paradigm in which two routes are learned and must be related to each other. It defines three groups: integrators, nonintegrators, and imprecise navigators. These groups show distinctive patterns of spatial skills and working memory, as well as personality. We contrast our approach with research challenging the cognitive-map hypothesis and offer directions for rapprochement between the two views.
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Success in developing survey knowledge varies considerably between individuals.
“Success in developing survey knowledge varies considerably between individuals [24].”
From A Role of Environmental Complexity on Representation Learning in Deep Reinforcement Learning Agents (2024) · cites this paper as [24]
In Weisberg et al. (2018), participants did not use the compass to encode newly learned indoor landmarks.
“However, they did not use the compass to encode the newly learned indoor landmarks.”
From This is not the way: global directional cues do not improve spatial learning in an immersive virtual environment (2025) · cites this paper as Weisberg et al., 2018
The Route Integration in Virtual Reality section describes participants learning buildings along virtual routes, but does not discuss a compass or newly learned indoor landmarks. Searches for “compass” and “compass encode newly learned indoor landmarks” found no passage addressing whether participants used one for encoding. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn Weisberg et al. (2018), participants used the compass to access an established reference frame (a north-oriented representation of Philadelphia), supporting the access hypothesis.
“In that study, participants used the compass to access an established reference frame (a north-oriented representation of the city of Philadelphia; supporting the access hypothesis).”
From This is not the way: global directional cues do not improve spatial learning in an immersive virtual environment (2025) · cites this paper as Weisberg et al., 2018
The Route Integration in Virtual Reality section mentions Philadelphia only as an example of a place to which transporting participants would be unrealistic. The sections on real-world route integration and cognitive maps do not describe compass use, an established north-oriented representation of Philadelphia, or an access hypothesis (searched those terms and paraphrases). (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe Experiment 1 results are consistent with research on providing compasses in large-scale indoor spaces (Weisberg et al., 2018).
“These results are consistent with research on providing compasses in large-scale indoor spaces (Weisberg et al., 2018).”
From This is not the way: global directional cues do not improve spatial learning in an immersive virtual environment (2025) · cites this paper as Weisberg et al., 2018
The Route Integration in the Real World section describes a walking tour on a campus, while Route Integration in Virtual Reality describes routes marked by arrows. Searches for compasses and large-scale indoor spaces found no passage about providing compasses in such spaces, so our copy does not establish the comparison attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.73)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn both compass studies (Experiment 1 and Weisberg et al., 2018), the global directional cue was provided in an abstract and transient way, not linked or central to the immediate environment.
“In both compass studies, however, the global directional cue was provided in an abstract and transient way, not linked or central to the immediate environment.”
From This is not the way: global directional cues do not improve spatial learning in an immersive virtual environment (2025) · cites this paper as Weisberg et al., 2018
The Route Integration in Virtual Reality section describes routes marked by arrows and navigation tests, but does not describe a compass study or a global directional cue. Searches for “compass” and for an abstract, transient orientation cue found no passage addressing how such a cue was provided; page numbers were unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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- Authors
- Weisberg, S. M., & Newcombe, N. S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- Temple University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Newcombe, Nora S.
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-06-13
- Volume
- 27
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 220-226
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- PMC
- PMC6095672
- OpenAlex
- W2807911859
- Cited by
- 86
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 2.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (SBE-1041707)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Automotive Engineering › Spatial Cognition and Navigation
- Social Sciences › Geography, Planning and Development › Geography Education and Pedagogy
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- cognitive maps, individual differences, spatial navigation, spatial learning, working memory, spatial ability, personality, virtual reality navigation
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