Retrieval-Based Learning in Children
Abstract
Testing oneself with flash cards, using a clicker to respond to a teacher’s questions, and teaching another student are all effective ways to learn information. These learning strategies work, in part, because they require the retrieval of information from memory, a process known to enhance later memory. However, little research has directly examined retrieval-based learning in children. We review the emerging literature on the benefits of retrieval-based learning for preschool and elementary school students and draw on other literatures for further insights. We reveal clear evidence for the benefits of retrieval-based learning in children (starting in infancy). However, we know little about the developmental trajectory. Overall, the benefits are largest when the initial retrieval practice is effortful but successful.
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Learning via retrieval has consistently been shown to be more effective than studying the material alone.
“Learning via retrieval has consistently been shown to be more effective than studying the material alone (Carpenter et al., 2008; de Lima et al., 2020; Fazio & Marsh, 2019; Karpicke & Aue, 2015; Karpicke & Grimaldi, 2012; Karpicke & Roediger, 2008; Kornell et al., 2011; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Fazio & Marsh, 2019
The testing effect is readily found in elementary school children, middle school students, high school students, college classrooms, medical students, and older adults.
“This effect, though, is also readily found in elementary school children (Fazio & Marsh 2019, Karpicke et al. 2016), in middle school (Roediger et al. 2011a) and high school students ( McDermott et al. 2014a), in college classrooms (Lyle & Crawford 2011, Mayer et al. 2009), and in medical students (Larsen et al. 2009).Older adults, too, can benefit from retrieval practice (Meyer & Logan 2013, Rog”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Fazio & Marsh 2019
Cites
Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J. D. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x · Cited by 2,867 · see citing works
The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention
Roediger, H. L., & Butler, A. C. (2011) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003 · Cited by 1,796 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Retrieval-based learning is more effective than popular strategies such as rereading and highlighting and promotes learning of a variety of types of information (see Roediger & Butler, 2011, for a review).”
BackgroundThe Critical Importance of Retrieval for Learning
Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1152408 · Cited by 1,791 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Critically, retrieval-based learning is useful even when memory fails (as long as feedback is provided; Pashler, Cepeda, Wixted, & Roher, 2005) and does not require metacognitive sophistication (even adults often fail to appreciate its benefits; Karpicke & Roediger, 2008).”
BackgroundWhen Does Feedback Facilitate Learning of Words?
Pashler, H., Cepeda, N. J., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.31.1.3 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
Tests enhance the transfer of learning
Rohrer, D., Taylor, K., & Sholar, B. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0017678 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Retrieval-Based Learning: Positive Effects of Retrieval Practice in Elementary School Children
Karpicke, J. D., Blunt, J. R., & Smith, M. A. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00350 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
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Agarwal, P. K., Nunes, L. D., & Blunt, J. R. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09595-9 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
The science of effective learning with spacing and retrieval practice
Carpenter, S. K., Pan, S. C., & Butler, A. C. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00089-1 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Generative Learning: Which Strategies for What Age?
Brod, G. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-020-09571-9 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning
McDermott, K. B. (2021) · Annual review of psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-051019 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Pyke, W., Lunau, J., & Javadi, A.-H. (2025) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218241308143 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“Learning via retrieval has consistently been shown to be more effective than studying the material alone (Carpenter et al., 2008; de Lima et al., 2020; Fazio & Marsh, 2019; Karpicke & Aue, 2015; Karpicke & Grimaldi, 2012; Karpicke & Roediger, 2008; Kornell et al., 2011; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006).”
Wiklund-Hörnqvist, C., Stillesjö, S., Andersson, M., Jonsson, B., & Nyberg, L. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.797395 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
- Authors
- Fazio, L. K., & Marsh, E. J.
- Affiliations
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Duke University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Fazio, Lisa K.
- Venue
- Current Directions in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2019-01-07
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 111-116
- ISSN
- 0963-7214 (ISSN-L)
- 1467-8721
- OpenAlex
- W2908428995
- Cited by
- 57
- References
- 6
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 5
- FWCI
- 4.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Current Directions in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Keywords
- retrieval practice, children, memory enhancement, flashcards, self-testing, teaching others, preschool children, elementary school students, developmental trajectories
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