The Effects of Surfing and the Natural Environment on the Well-Being of Combat Veterans
Open accessAbstract
Although researchers have identified the benefits of physical activity on well-being, there is little evidence concerning the effects of nature-based physical activity. We investigated the effect of one nature-based activity—surfing—on the well-being of combat veterans experiencing posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We conducted interviews and participant observations with a group of combat veterans belonging to a United Kingdom-based veterans’ surfing charity. Our primary analytical approach was dialogical narrative analysis. Based on our rigorous analysis and findings, we suggest that surfing facilitated a sense of respite from PTSD. Respite was a fully embodied feeling of release from suffering that was cultivated through surfing and shaped by the stories veterans told of their experiences. We significantly extend previous knowledge on physical activity, combat veterans, and PTSD by highlighting how nature-based physical activity, encapsulated in the conceptual notion of the “blue gym,” can promote well-being among combat veterans.
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Female and male military service members and veterans demonstrate respite from PTSD symptoms utilizing surf therapy, including decreased depression and anxiety, as well as increased positive affect.
“Female and male military service members and veterans demonstrate respite from (PTSD) symptoms utilizing surf therapy, including decreased depression and anxiety, as well as increased positive affect.”
From The Groundswell Community Surf Therapy Intervention for At-Risk Women and Changes in Body Acceptance, Resilience, and Emotional Regulation (2024) · cites this paper as [28]
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Self-citationReligious culture as a barrier? A counter-narrative of Danish Muslim girls’ participation in sports
Agergaard, S. (2016) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/2159676x.2015.1121914 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“This article follows in line with the ontological assumption that people’s everyday experiences are of a physical world, while narratives and human experiences may influence each other (Frank 2010 cited in caddick et al. 2015).”
BackgroundHamberger, L. K., Barry, C. O., & Franco, Z. E. (2019) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2019.1572399 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Polluted Leisure and Blue Spaces: More-Than-Human Concerns in Fukushima
Evers, C. (2019) · Journal of Sport and Social Issues · doi:10.1177/0193723519884854 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Surfing the waves: Environmental and socio-economic aspects of surf tourism and recreation
Román, C., Borja, Á., Uyarra, M. C., & Pouso, S. (2022) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154122 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Day, M. C., & Wadey, R. (2015) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.07.004 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Thus parallels can be drawn between how growth was achieved in this case study and previous suggestions from authors such as Burke and Sabiston (2010), Caddick et al. (2014), and Sabiston et al. (2007) among others.”
BackgroundResultWalter, K. H., Otis, N. P., Ray, T. N., Glassman, L. H., Michalewicz-Kragh, B., Powell, A. L., & Thomsen, C. J. (2019) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.101551 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Narrative inquiry and autoethnography
Smith, B. M. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315745664-51 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
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A Qualitative Study on Emotions Experienced at the Coast and Their Influence on Well-Being
Severin, M. I., Raes, F., Notebaert, E., Lambrecht, L., Everaert, G., & Buysse, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.902122 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Morgan, A., Sinclair, H., Tan, A., Thomas, E., & Castle, R. (2018) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2018.1480667 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“Whilst some informal socialisation has developed between members, and the Founder remains available to provide advice and signposting, this study along with several similar studies illustrates that there is a reported prevalence of deterioration in the mental well-being of participants immediately after involvement in…”
BackgroundThe effects of blue spaces on mental health and associated biomarkers
Hermanski, A., McClelland, J. D., Pearce-Walker, J. I., Ruiz, J. M., & Verhougstraete, M. P. (2021) · International Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/00207411.2021.1910173 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“There were a variety of studies found and excluded during this literature review that also showed improved mental health with exercise in blue spaces (Amrhein et al., 2016; Caddick et al., 2015; Russel, 2016) or increased physical activity with access to blue spaces (White et al.”
BackgroundLife, embodiment, and (post-)war stories: studying narrative in critical military studies
Caddick, N. (2018) · Critical Military Studies · doi:10.1080/23337486.2018.1554942 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationMarshall, J., Kelly, P., & Niven, A. G. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16122159 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“More targeted empirical explanations are evident from two studies utilising dialogical narrative analysis to explore the experiences of ex-military participants experiencing PTSD who participated in the same UK-based surf therapy intervention [24,25].”
BackgroundFox, N., Marshall, J., & Dankel, D. J. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18115819 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Previous studies have indicated that surfers not only receive physical [41], mental [42], emotional [43], and inter-personal [44] benefits from surfing waves but aware and knowledgeable of the ocean system is integral to surviving and progressing as a surfer [39].”
BackgroundExercise is medicine for mental health in military veterans: a qualitative commentary
Caddick, N., & Smith, B. M. (2017) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/2159676x.2017.1333033 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
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Relationships between Recreation and Pollution When Striving for Wellbeing in Blue Spaces
Evers, C., & Phoenix, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19074170 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“healing, belonging, environmentalist awakening attitudes, and spirituality [14,16,20,61,62].”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Impact of Living in a Care Home on the Health and Wellbeing of Spinal Cord Injured People
Smith, B., & Caddick, N. (2015) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph120404185 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Psychological wellbeing refers to a state of fulfilment and positive engagement with life [15,16].”
BackgroundSelf-citationBluespace, Senses, Wellbeing, and Surfing: Prototype Cyborg Theory-Methods
lisahunter, L. H., & Stoodley, L. (2020) · Journal of Sport and Social Issues · doi:10.1177/0193723520928593 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…links between surfing and wellbeing is increasingly common in media (for example see VicHealth, 2018; Willis, 2018), grassroots movements (see Parker, 2019), and literary perspectives including academic (see Capp, 2003; Kreeft, 2008) but less so in empirical scholarship (see Caddick et al., 2014).”
BackgroundExploring flow in sport and exercise therapy with war and torture survivors
Ley, C., Krammer, J., Lippert, D., & Barrio, M. R. (2017) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2017.03.002 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Walter, K. H., Otis, N. P., Ray, T. N., Glassman, L. H., Beltran, J. L., Kobayashi Elliott, K. T., & Michalewicz-Kragh, B. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04452-7 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Conclusions Activity-based therapies provide individuals with the opportunity to exercise, socialize, engage with the natural environment, and experience respite from their psychological symptoms [31, 32, 34, 69].”
BackgroundNew Caledonian Crows Behave Optimistically after Using Tools
McCoy, D. E., Schiestl, M., Neilands, P., Hassall, R., Gray, R. D., & Taylor, A. H. (2019) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.080 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“The effect of performing complex, species-specific behavior on animal emotion has received comparatively little attention, despite suggestive evidence that it improves mood in humans [1–5, 8, 34, 35].”
Phoenix, C., Bell, S., & Hollenbeck, J. (2020) · Journal of Sport and Social Issues · doi:10.1177/0193723520950536 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Focusing primarily on oceanic environments—the core concern of this article—contributions from these fields, along with the social scientific study of health more broadly, have shown how being in blue space can promote wellbeing by facilitating sensual pleasures (Phoenix & Orr, 2015; Throsby, 2013); provide respite fr…”
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“Increasing evidence suggests that surfing in an ocean environment can facilitate feelings of respite and enhance wellbeing in individuals with lasting psycho-social difficulties [55, 69] by necessitating a focus on body and mind in the present moment [70].”
BackgroundLey, C., & Barrio, M. R. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-72914-5_13 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Burlingham, A., Denton, H., Massey, H. C., Vides, N., & Harper, C. M. (2021) · Mental health and physical activity · doi:10.1016/j.mhpa.2022.100472 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Finally, the intense sensory experience of being in water brings attention into the moment and provides a respite from mental health difficulties (Caddick et al., 2015).”
“Feels Good to Get Wet”: The Unique Affordances of Surf Therapy Among Australian Youth
McKenzie, R. J., Chambers, T. P., Nicholson-Perry, K., Pilgrim, J., & Ward, P. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.721238 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Valuing surfing ecosystems: an environmental economics and natural resources management perspective
Manero, A., & Mach, L. (2023) · Tourism Geographies · doi:10.1080/14616688.2023.2261909 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Positive mental health outcomes have been found among surf-therapy participants, including veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (caddick et al., 2015), at-risk youth (Godfrey et al., 2015; McKenzie et al., 2021) and children with special needs (armitano et al., 2015; clapham et al., 2014).”
BackgroundWright, K. A., Eden, S., Hancox, A., Windget, D., Elliott, L. R., Glossop, Z., Johnston, G., Johnston, R., Lobban, F. A., Lodge, C., et al. (2024) · People and Nature · doi:10.1002/pan3.10620 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Maharja, C., Praptiwi, R. A., Roberts, B. R., Morrissey, K., White, M. P., Sari, N. M., Cholifatullah, F., Sugardjito, J., & Fleming, L. E. (2022) · Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism · doi:10.1016/j.jort.2022.100584 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
A national assessment of the economic and wellbeing impacts of recreational surfing in Australia
Manero, A., Yusoff, A., Lane, M., & Verreydt, K. (2024) · Marine Policy · doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2024.106267 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Exploring potential mechanisms underpinning the therapeutic effects of surfing
Moreton, S. G., Brennan, M. K., Nicholls, V. I., Wolf, I. D., & Muir, D. L. (2021) · Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning · doi:10.1080/14729679.2021.1884104 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“This finding dovetails with qualitative evidence suggesting that surfing can function as a period of short-term positive distraction (Caddick et al., 2015b).”
Harnessing the Four Elements for Mental Health
Sarris, J. J., de Manincor, M., Hargraves, F., & Tsonis, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00256 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Another water-based application is in the use of “surf therapy,” which has shown to improve participants’ well-being (65, 66).”
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Supporting ‘blue care’ through outdoor water-based activities: practitioner perspectives
Juster-Horsfield, H. H., & Bell, S. (2021) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/2159676x.2021.1879921 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The National Veterans Summer Sports Clinic: Change and duration of psychological outcomes
Walter, K. H., Otis, N. P., Re, A. C. D., Kohen, C. B., Glassman, L. H., Ober, K. M., & Hose, M. K. (2021) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.101939 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Traveling Material↔Semiotic Environments of Disability, Rehabilitation, and Physical Activity
Monforte, J., Samaniego, V. P., & Smith, B. M. (2018) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732318820520 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationOverweight and obese men’s experiences in a sport-based weight loss intervention for men
Budden, T., Dimmock, J. A., Smith, B. M., Beauchamp, M. R., Rosenberg, M., & Jackson, B. (2020) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101750 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
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Adams, T. G., Forte, J., Fogle, B. M., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2020) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.13234 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Extant observational studies on the association between exercise frequency and PTSD symptoms among military veteran samples have reported mixed findings (14, 18 – 23).”
Glassman, L. H., Otis, N. P., Michalewicz-Kragh, B., & Walter, K. H. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18094634 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Informal sports for youth recovery: grassroots strategies in conflict and disaster geographies
Thorpe, H. (2020) · Journal of Youth Studies · doi:10.1080/13676261.2020.1763936 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The impacts of climate change on surfing resources
Sadrpour, N., & Reineman, D. R. (2023) · Shore & Beach · doi:10.34237/1009113 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Peacock, S., Carless, D., & McKenna, J. (2017) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2017.12.003 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Day, M. C., & Wadey, R. (2017) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/2159676x.2017.1328460 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
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Shirazipour, C. H., Tennant, E. M., Aiken, A. B., & Latimer‐Cheung, A. E. (2019) · Military Behavioral Health · doi:10.1080/21635781.2019.1611508 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Ameli, R., Skeath, P. R., Abraham, P. A., Panahi, S., Kazman, J. B., Foote, F. O., Deuster, P. A., Ahmad, N., & Berger, A. M. (2021) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.10519 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Reflections on being a civilian researcher in an ex-military world: expanding horizons?
Caddick, N., Cooper, A., & Smith, B. M. (2017) · Critical Military Studies · doi:10.1080/23337486.2017.1345545 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“This paper reflects on key issues which arose during and as a result of conducting my doctoral research with veterans, rather than on the research topic itself of surfing and PTSD, which has been covered elsewhere (e.g. Caddick and Smith 2017; Caddick, Smith, and Phoenix 2015a, 2015b).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationNarratives of Recovery Over the First Year After Major Lower Limb Loss
Sanders, P., Wadey, R., Day, M. C., & Winter, S. (2020) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732320925794 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“As Caddick et al. (2015) explained, “Narratives act on people in the sense that they constitute certain emotions, beliefs, and practices as appropriate in the context of a particular story, whereas others are necessarily eschewed” (p. 77).”
BackgroundSurfing on physical education curriculum and the impact on student’s well-being
Silva, B., Cruz, G., Bentes, R., & Lima, R. (2022) · journal of physical education · doi:10.4025/jphyseduc.v33i1.3317 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Drake, C. J., Keith, M., Dober, M., Evans, S., & OLIVE, L. S. (2021) · Complementary Therapies in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ctim.2021.102713 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Concussions and Risk Within Cultural Contexts of Play
Colón, G. A. T., Smith, S., & Fucillo, J. (2016) · Qualitative Health Research · doi:10.1177/1049732316669339 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
A grounded theory exploration of programme theory within Waves of Wellness surf therapy intervention
Marshall, J., Ferrier, B. K., Martindale, R. J. J., & Ward, P. B. (2023) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2023.2214590 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“…within the WOW intervention aligns not only with wider physical activity for mental health literature (Lubans et al., 2016), but also with previous research exploring surf therapy (Caddick et al., 2015; Marshall et al., 2019, 2020b) including exploratory research with WOW (McKenzie et al., 2021).”
InfluentialWalter, K. H., Otis, N. P., Miggantz, E. L., Ray, T. N., Glassman, L. H., Beltran, J. L., Elliott, K. T. K., & Michalewicz-Kragh, B. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1185774 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“In this study, PTSD-related outcomes are reported descriptively.”
BackgroundInfluentialCarneiro, L. S. R. D. S. F., Clemente, F. M., Claudino, J. G., Ferreira, J. V., Ramírez‐Campillo, R., & Afonso, J. R. (2024) · BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies · doi:10.1186/s12906-024-04674-0 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Considering the diversity of surf therapy interventions operating in culturally and linguistically diverse groups [e.g., war veterans [55], children and adolescents in post-conflict zones [56]], researchers should refrain from utilizing surveys designed to assess constructs within a particular…”
BackgroundMadill, A., Flowers, P., Frost, N. A., & Locke, A. (2018) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2018.1475670 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The Effect of a Single Bout of Surfing on Exercise Induced Affect
Pittsinger, R. F., Kress, J., & Crussemeyer, J. A. (2017) · International journal of exercise science · doi:10.70252/xbnu4472 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Additional qualitative studies include Caddick, Smith and Phoenix (5) who explored the effects of surfing on combat veterans experiencing posttraumatic stress disorder and found their well-being was enhanced by regular participation in the sport.”
BackgroundEsmene, S., Leyshon, C., & Leyshon, M. (2020) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2020.102394 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Sharing a New Foxhole With Friends: The Impact of Outdoor Recreation on Injured Military
Rogers, S. D., Loy, D. P., & Brown-Bochicchio, C. M. (2016) · Therapeutic Recreation Journal · doi:10.18666/trj-2016-v50-i3-2837 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Mental Health Outcomes of Peer-led Therapeutic Adventure for Military Veterans
Bettmann, J. E., Anderson, I., Makouske, J., & Hanley, A. W. (2021) · Journal of Experiential Education · doi:10.1177/10538259211049535 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Recent research found a PTSD prevalence of 23% across nearly five million veterans (Fulton et al., 2015).”
InfluentialWalter, K. H., Otis, N. P., Glassman, L. H., Ray, T. N., Michalewicz-Kragh, B., Elliott, K. T. K., & Thomsen, C. J. (2019) · Contemporary Clinical Trials Communications · doi:10.1016/j.conctc.2019.100435 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Qualitative fieldwork in medical contexts: confessions of a neophyte researcher
Sanders, P., Wadey, R., Day, M. C., & Winter, S. (2017) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/2159676x.2017.1351390 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…in natural settings) to understand the world from the participants’ point of view and facilitate a more in-depth understanding of the richness, complexity and multifaceted relationships within natural environments (for examples of such work, see Caddick et al. 2015a, 2015b, Cavallerio et al. 2016).”
BackgroundEvans, A. B., Andreassen, S. M. N., & Virklund, A. W. (2019) · Qualitative Research in Sport Exercise and Health · doi:10.1080/2159676x.2019.1672774 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Cosgriff, M. (2023) · Sport Education and Society · doi:10.1080/13573322.2023.2170345 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Beach and ocean-based leisure, sport and education cultures and practices including in surfing (e.g. Caddick et al., 2015; Evers, 2019; lisahunter & Stoodley, 2021; Waiti & Awatere, 2019; Wheaton et al., 2017), ocean swimming (e.g. Britton & Foley, 2021; Costello et al., 2019; Foley, 2015); waka…”
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Nordic-Baltic cooperation in adult education: A collective story of Estonian adult educators
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Walker, P. A., & Kampman, H. (2021) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2021.1995056 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Two studies have found promising findings on how to facilitate growth experiences among combat veterans: both white water rafting, and surfing have been found to be effective [5,38], which raises the question about whether scuba diving could do the same.”
BackgroundResultReturn to surfing using an adapted prosthesis
Schvirtz, E., Bensoussan, L., Couderc, B. T., Viton, J. M., Delarque, A., & Kerzoncuf, M. (2018) · Prosthetics and Orthotics International · doi:10.1177/0309364618757785 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
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COMBAT SURFERS: A NARRATIVE STUDY OF VETERANS, SURFING, AND WAR TRAUMA
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Nature, activity, and social drivers of mental resilience: a test with mid-life women surfers
Buckley, R., & Cooper, M. (2025) · Tourism Recreation Research · doi:10.1080/02508281.2024.2437716 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“…children (Scarf et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2023), including surfing (Gardiner et al., 2023); adults with post-traumatic stress disorders (Caddick et al., 2015; Walter et al., 2019); and women in outdoor recreation (Doran et al., 2021), especially in socially conservative countries…”
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“This may speak to the psychological benefits of surf and hike therapies across a variety of different populations [63,64], including those with different psychological conditions [65–67].”
BackgroundDevelopment and Application of Local Coastal Knowledge: Insights from New Zealand Surfers
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Place attachment, wellbeing, and conservation in surf destination communities
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Smith‐MacDonald, L., Pike, A., Jones, C., & Brémault‐Phillips, S. (2022) · Trauma Care · doi:10.3390/traumacare2020010 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Caddick, N., Smith, B., & Phoenix, C.
- Affiliations
- University of Exeter (GB)
- Loughborough University (GB)
- Venue
- Qualitative Health Research
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2014-09-04
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 76-86
- ISSN
- 1049-7323 (ISSN-L)
- 1552-7557
- OpenAlex
- W2166801435
- Cited by
- 153
- References
- 66
- Citations by year
- 2026: 11 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 12 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 5
- FWCI
- 5.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- figshare.com
- Locations
- Qualitative Health Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Anglia Ruskin Research Online (Anglia Ruskin University) (submittedVersion)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Durham Research Online (Durham University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Urban Green Space and Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Adventure Sports and Sensation Seeking
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Recreation, Leisure, Wilderness Management
- Keywords
- surfing, combat veterans, post-traumatic stress disorder, nature-based physical activity, well-being, respite, embodiment, physical activity and mental health
- MeSH terms
- Adult, United Kingdom, Health Status, Humans, Male, Mental Health, Middle Aged, Oceans and Seas, Sports, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Veterans, Narrative Therapy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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