The Corticospinal System: From Development to Motor Control
Abstract
The corticospinal system is the principal motor system for controlling movements that require the greatest skill and flexibility. It is the last motor system to develop. The pattern of termination of corticospinal axons, as they grow into the spinal gray matter, bears little resemblance to the pattern later in development and in maturity. Refinement of corticospinal terminations occurs during a protracted postnatal period and includes both elimination of transient terminations and growth to new targets. This refinement is driven by neural activity in the motor cortical areas and by limb motor experience. Developing corticospinal terminals compete with each other for synaptic space on spinal neurons. More active terminals are more competitive and are able to secure more synaptic space than their less active counterparts. Corticospinal terminals can activate spinal neurons from very early in development. The importance of this early synaptic activity appears to be more for refining corticospinal connections than for transmitting signals to spinal motor circuits for movement control. The motor control functions of the corticospinal system are not expressed until development of connectional specificity with spinal cord neurons, a strong capacity for corticospinal synapses to facilitate spinal motor circuits, and the formation of the cortical motor map.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Maturation of the CST is driven by neural activity in cortical motor areas and limb experience, reflecting the need to adapt to changing motor demands.
“Both rodent and human studies suggest that maturation of the CST is driven by neural activity in cortical motor areas and limb experience, thus reflecting the need to adapt to changing motor demands. 52,53”
From Physical exercise keeps the brain connected: biking increases white matter integrity in patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. (2015) · cites this paper as [52]
Cites
The Molecular Biology of Axon Guidance
Tessier‐Lavigne, M., & Goodman, C. S. (1996) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.274.5290.1123 · Cited by 3,295 · see citing works
Regional Development of the Brain in Early Life
(1968) · Archives of Disease in Childhood · doi:10.1136/adc.43.229.388 · Cited by 2,107 · see citing works
(1967) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,713 · see citing works
Developmental mechanisms that generate precise patterns of neuronal connectivity
Goodman, C. S., & Shatz, C. J. (1993) · Cell · doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(05)80030-3 · Cited by 1,425 · see citing works
Corticospinal Function and Voluntary Movement
Porter, R. W., & LEMON, R. N. (1995) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198523758.001.0001 · Cited by 804 · see citing works
Conversion of Neuronal Growth Cone Responses from Repulsion to Attraction by Cyclic Nucleotides
Song, H., Ming, G., He, Z., Lehmann, M., McKerracher, L. J., Tessier‐Lavigne, M., & Poo, M.-M. (1998) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.281.5382.1515 · Cited by 796 · see citing works
Impulse activity and the patterning of connections during cns development
Shatz, C. J. (1990) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/0896-6273(90)90333-b · Cited by 766 · see citing works
Postspike facilitation of forelimb muscle activity by primate corticomotoneuronal cells
Fetz, E. E., & Cheney, P. D. (1980) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1980.44.4.751 · Cited by 754 · see citing works
Anatomy of the Descending Pathways
Kuypers, H. G. J. M. (1981) · Comprehensive physiology · doi:10.1002/cphy.cp010213 · Cited by 677 · see citing works
LeVay, S., Stryker, M. P., & Shatz, C. J. (1978) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.901790113 · Cited by 658 · see citing works
Inhibition of Ocular Dominance Column Formation by Infusion of NT-4/5 or BDNF
Cabelli, R. J., Hohn, A., & Shatz, C. J. (1995) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7886458 · Cited by 566 · see citing works
Eye–hand coordination in the newborn.
von Hofsten, C. (1982) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.18.3.450 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Corticospinal Function and Voluntary Movement
Schieber, M. H., & Poliakov, A. V. (1997) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.1997.00550150008005 · Cited by 478 · see citing works
Physiological basis of motor effects of a transient stimulus to cerebral cortex
Amassian, V. E., Stewart, M., Quirk, G. J., & Rosenthal, J. (1987) · Neurosurgery · doi:10.1097/00006123-198701000-00022 · Cited by 473 · see citing works
Taub, E., Ramey, S. L., DeLuca, S., & Echols, K. (2004) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.113.2.305 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
Patterns of central motor reorganization in hemiplegic cerebral palsy
Carr, L., Harrison, L. M., Evans, A. L., & Stephens, J. A. (1993) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/116.5.1223 · Cited by 428 · see citing works
GROWTH CONE GUIDANCE: First Steps Towards a Deeper Understanding
Mueller, B. K. (1999) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.22.1.351 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
Evidence of activity-dependent withdrawal of corticospinal projections during human development
Eyre, J. A., Taylor, J., Villagra, F., et al. (2001) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.57.9.1543 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Eyre, J. A., Miller, S. N., Clowry, G. J., Conway, E., & Watts, C. (2000) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/123.1.51 · Cited by 345 · see citing works
Eph receptors and ephrins in neural development
O’Leary, D. D. M., & Wilkinson, D. G. (1999) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0959-4388(99)80008-7 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Neurophysiological correlates of hand preference in primary motor cortex of adult squirrel monkeys
Nudo, R. J., Jenkins, W., Merzenich, M. M., Prejean, T., & Grenda, R. (1992) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.12-08-02918.1992 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Lawrence, D. G., & Hopkins, D. A. (1976) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/99.2.235 · Cited by 289 · see citing works
A Therapeutic Vaccine Approach to Stimulate Axon Regeneration in the Adult Mammalian Spinal Cord
Huang, D. W., McKerracher, L. J., Braun, P. E., & David, S. (1999) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)81118-6 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
The mode of activation of pyramidal tract cells by intracortical stimuli.
Jankowska, E., Padel, Y., & Tanaka, R. (1975) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1975.sp011034 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
The Functional Significance of Arm Movements in Neonates
van der Meer, A. L. H., van der Weel, F. R., & Lee, D. N. (1995) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7839147 · Cited by 269 · see citing works
Multiple overlapping processes underlying short-term synaptic enhancement
Fisher, S. A., Fischer, T. M., & Carew, T. J. (1997) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/s0166-2236(96)01001-6 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Kullander, K., Croll, S. D., Zimmer, M., Pan, L., McClain, J., Hughes, V. C., Zabski, S. M., DeChiara, T. M., Klein, R., Yancopoulos, G. D., et al. (2001) · Genes & Development · doi:10.1101/gad.868901 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
Brösamle, C., Huber, A. B., Fiedler, M. R. M., Skerra, A., & Schwab, M. E. (2000) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.20-21-08061.2000 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Corticospinal Connections: Postnatal Development in the Rhesus Monkey
Kuypers, H. G. J. M. (1962) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.138.3541.678 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Yokoyama, N., Romero‐Ortega, M. I., Cowan, C. A., et al. (2001) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(01)00182-9 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Konczak, J., Borutta, M., Topka, H. R., & DICHGANS, J. (1995) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00241365 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Maturation of corticospinal tracts assessed by electromagnetic stimulation of the motor cortex.
Koh, T. H. H. G., & Eyre, J. A. (1988) · Archives of Disease in Childhood · doi:10.1136/adc.63.11.1347 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Chapter 11 Neural mechanisms underlying corticospinal and rubrospinal control of limb movements
Cheney, P. D., Fetz, E. E., & Mewes, K. (1991) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(08)63054-x · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Armand, J., Olivier, E., Edgley, S. A., & Lemon, R. (1997) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.17-01-00251.1997 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Nezua, A., Kimura, S., Uehara, S., Kobayashia, T., Tanaka, M., & Saito, K. (1997) · Brain and Development · doi:10.1016/s0387-7604(96)00552-9 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Functional Organization of Adult Motor Cortex Is Dependent upon Continued Protein Synthesis
Kleim, J. A., Hines, R. M., Calder, K., Pocock, D., VandenBerg, P. M., MacDonald, E., Monfils, M., Sutherland, R. J., & Nader, K. (2003) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(03)00592-0 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
The development of the corticospinal projection
Stanfield, B. B. (1992) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/0301-0082(92)90039-h · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Olivier, E., Edgley, S. A., Armand, J., & Lemon, R. (1997) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.17-01-00267.1997 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Corticospinal System Development Depends on Motor Experience
Martin, J. H., Choy, M., Pullman, S. L., et al. (2004) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4616-03.2004 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Self-citationDemonstration of Intention in the Reaching Behaviour of Neonate Humans
Bower, T. G. R., BROUGHTON, J. M., & Moore, M. K. (1970) · Nature · doi:10.1038/228679a0 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
BEHAVIOUR OF SOCIALLY LIVING RHESUS MONKEYS IN THEIR FIRST SIX MONTHS
Hinde, R. A., BOWELL, T. E., & Spencer‐Booth, Y. (1964) · Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1964.tb03884.x · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Dynamics of target recognition by interstitial axon branching along developing cortical axons
Bastmeyer, M., & O'Leary, D. (1996) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.16-04-01450.1996 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Proximodistal structure of early reaching in human infants
Berthier, N. E., Clifton, R. K., McCall, D. D., et al. (1999) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210050795 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Activity-dependent development of cortical axon terminations in the spinal cord and brain stem
Martin, J. H., Kably, B., & Hacking, A. G. (1999) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210050673 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Self-citationMartin, J. H., & Ghez, C. (1993) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00230201 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationAn anterograde tracer study of the developing corticospinal tract in the rat: three components
Joosten, E. A. J., Gribnau, A. A. M., & Dederen, P. J. W. C. (1987) · Developmental Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0165-3806(87)90070-8 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Postnatal Maturation of the Direct Corticospinal Projections in the Macaque Monkey
Galea, M. P., & Darian-Smith, I. (1995) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/5.6.518 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Early ontogeny of locomotor behaviour: a comparison between altricial and precocial animals
Muir, G. D. (2000) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/s0361-9230(00)00404-4 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Development and reorganization of corticospinal projections in EphA4 deficient mice
Coonan, J. R., Greferath, U., Messenger, J., et al. (2001) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.1064 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Postnatal Development of the Motor Representation in Primary Motor Cortex
Chakrabarty, S., & Martin, J. H. (2000) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.2000.84.5.2582 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationJoosten, E. A. J., Schuitman, R. L., Vermelis, M. E. J., et al. (1992) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.903260112 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Development of descending fibers to the rat embryonic spinal cord
Kudo, N., Furukawa, F., & Okado, N. (1993) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/0168-0102(93)90080-a · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Activity-dependent competition between developing corticospinal terminations
Martin, J. H., & Lee, S. H. (1999) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199908020-00010 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Self-citationCabana, T., & Martin, G. F. (1985) · Developmental Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0165-3806(85)90007-0 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
The Integrated Nature of Motor Cortical Function
Capaday, C. (2004) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/107385403262109 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Curfs, M. H. J. M., Gribnau, A. A. M., & Dederen, P. J. W. C. (1994) · Developmental Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0165-3806(94)90025-6 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Oudega, M., Varon, S. S., & Hagg, T. (1994) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.903470109 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
The Transition from Development to Motor Control Function in the Corticospinal System
Meng, Z., Li, Q., & Martin, J. H. (2004) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4313-03.2004 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationPostnatal development of the corticospinal tract in the rat
Joosten, E. A. J., Gribnau, A. A. M., & Dederen, P. J. W. C. (1989) · Anatomy and Embryology · doi:10.1007/bf00319587 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
The postnatal spatial and temporal development of corticospinal projections in cats
Alisky, J. M., Swink, T. D., & Tolbert, D. L. (1992) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf02259101 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Postnatal redistribution of pericruciate motor cortical projections within the kitten spinal cord
Theriault, E., & Tatton, W. G. (1989) · Developmental Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0165-3806(89)90041-2 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Intrinsic connections between representation zones in the cat motor cortex
Keller, A. (1993) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199305000-00013 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Li, Q., & Martin, J. H. (2000) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210000454 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Self-citationThe effectiveness of constraint induced movement therapy in two young children with hemiplegia
Glover, J. E., Mateer, C. A., Yoell, C., et al. (2002) · Developmental Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.1080/1363849021000039326 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Friel, K. M., & Martin, J. H. (2005) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.20483 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Self-citationFlament, D., Hall, E. J., & LEMON, R. N. (1992) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1992.sp019027 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Impairments in Prehension Produced by Early Postnatal Sensory Motor Cortex Activity Blockade
Martin, J. H., Donarummo, L., & Hacking, A. G. (2000) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.2000.83.2.895 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationMyelination and the development of function in immature pyramidal tract
Huttenlocher, P. R. (1970) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1016/0014-4886(70)90068-3 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Gibson, C. L., Arnott, G. A., & Clowry, G. J. (2000) · Experimental Neurology · doi:10.1006/exnr.2000.7511 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Salimi, I., & Martin, J. H. (2004) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0004-04.2004 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationJoosten, E. A. J. (1997) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(97)00024-5 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Martin, J. H., Engber, D., & Meng, Z. (2004) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.01060.2004 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopment of locomotion in the rat: the significance of early movements
Westerga, J., & Gramsbergen, A. (1993) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/0378-3782(93)90044-u · Cited by 44 · see citing works
The early development of corticobulbar and corticospinal systems
Martin, G. F., Cabana, T., Culberson, J. L., et al. (1980) · Anatomy and Embryology · doi:10.1007/bf00305344 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Magnetoelectrical stimulation of motor cortex in children with motor disturbances
Müller, K. J., Hömberg, V., Aulich, A., et al. (1992) · Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology/Evoked Potentials Section · doi:10.1016/0168-5597(92)90073-k · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Postnatal development of corticospinal axon terminal morphology in the cat
Li, Q., & Martin, J. H. (2001) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.1197 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Self-citationPostnatal development of connectional specificity of corticospinal terminals in the cat
Li, Q., & Martin, J. H. (2002) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.10203 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationDevelopment of motor activity in kittens
Levine, M. S., Hull, C. D., & Buchwald, N. A. (1980) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.420130403 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Topographic specificity of corticospinal connections formed in explant coculture
Kuang, R. Z., Merline, M., & Kalil, K. (1994) · Development · doi:10.1242/dev.120.7.1937 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Retraction of muscle afferents from the rat ventral horn during development
Gibson, C. L., & Clowry, G. J. (1999) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/00001756-199902050-00006 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Neurotrophins and visual system plasticity
Shatz, C. J. (1998) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195111668.003.0014 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Synchronous development of motor cortical output to different muscles in the kitten
Brace, I. C., & Tatton, W. G. (1980) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00237802 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Postnatal Development of Corticospinal Postsynaptic Action
Meng, Z., & Martin, J. H. (2003) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00152.2003 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Self-citationKawasaki, T., Nishio, T., Kawaguchi, S., et al. (2001) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/s0168-0102(00)00234-0 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Prior killing experience and the suppressive effects of punishment on the killing of mice by rats
Myer, J. S. (1967) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/s0003-3472(67)80011-3 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Post‐natal development of pyramidal tract neurones in kittens.
Oka, H., Samejima, A., & Yamamoto, T. (1985) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1985.sp015723 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Armand, J., & Kably, B. (1993) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/bf00227782 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Molecular and Cellular Approaches to Neural Development
(1998) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.55.12.1586 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Similar patterns of cortical expansion during human development and evolution
Hill, J., Inder, T., Neil, J., Dierker, D., Harwell, J., & Van Essen, D. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1001229107 · Cited by 811 · see citing works
Mapping Region-Specific Longitudinal Cortical Surface Expansion from Birth to 2 Years of Age
Li, G., Nie, J., Wang, L., Shi, F., Lin, W., Gilmore, J. H., & Shen, D. (2013) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs265 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Han, W., Kwan, K. Y., Shim, S., Lam, M. M. S., Shin, Y., Xu, X., Zhu, Y., Li, M., & Šestan, N. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1016723108 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Activity-dependent neural plasticity from bench to bedside
Ganguly, K., & Poo, M.-M. (2013) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.028 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Cis-regulatory control of corticospinal system development and evolution
Shim, S., Kwan, K. Y., Li, M., Lefebvre, V., & Šestan, N. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature11094 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Svatkova, A., Mandl, R. C. W., Scheewe, T. W., Cahn, W., Kahn, R. S., & Hulshoff Pol, H. E. (2015) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbv033 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Pujala, A., & Koyama, M. (2019) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.42135 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Bilateral Activity-Dependent Interactions in the Developing Corticospinal System
Friel, K. M., & Martin, J. H. (2007) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2814-07.2007 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationA new view of “dream enactment” in REM sleep behavior disorder
Blumberg, M. S., & Plumeau, A. M. (2016) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2015.12.002 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
- Authors
- Martin, J. H.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Martin, John H.
- ORCID
- Martin, John H.
- Venue
- The Neuroscientist
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2005-04
- Volume
- 11
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 161-173
- ISSN
- 1073-8584 (ISSN-L)
- 1089-4098
- OpenAlex
- W2106751693
- Cited by
- 358
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 15 · 2014: 21 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 15
- FWCI
- 1.25
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- The Neuroscientist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NS33835)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Developmental Neuroscience › Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity mechanisms
- Keywords
- corticospinal system, synaptic competition, motor cortex activation, spinal motor circuits, motor control
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Humans, Motor Activity, Motor Cortex, Neuronal Plasticity, Neurons, Pyramidal Tracts, Synapses
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
