Cited by 504Death Anxiety and Social ExclusionBullying, Victimization, and AggressionSocial and Intergroup Psychology

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Rejection Elicits Emotional Reactions but Neither Causes Immediate Distress nor Lowers Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analytic Review of 192 Studies on Social Exclusion

Blackhart, Ginette C., Nelson, Brian C., Knowles, Megan L., Baumeister, Roy F.·2009·Personality and Social Psychology Review

DOI 10.1177/1088868309346065

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Abstract

Competing predictions about the effect of social exclusion were tested by meta-analyzing findings from studies of interpersonal rejection, ostracism, and similar procedures. Rejection appears to cause a significant shift toward a more negative emotional state. Typically, however, the result was an emotionally neutral state marked by low levels of both positive and negative affect. Acceptance caused a slight increase in positive mood and a moderate increase in self-esteem. Self-esteem among rejected persons was no different from neutral controls. These findings are discussed in terms of belongingness motivation, sociometer theory, affective numbing, and self-esteem defenses.

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“However, a meta-analysis suggests that discrete instances of social rejection may not elicit immediate distress, but continual or chronic perceived rejection predicts overall negative affect and low self-esteem (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
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“Psychologically, acceptance correlates with higher life satisfaction and lower stress levels, while rejection is linked to greater psychological distress [12].”
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“In social psychology, most research on social exclusion focuses on the exclusion by social agents through direct rejection (Blackhart et al., 2009 ) or ostracism—defined as being ignored by a group (Büttner et al., 2024; Ren et al., 2021).”
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“1 3 meta-analysis of research on social exclusion found that the higher the proportion of female participants in a study, the greater the effect for emotion (Blackhart et al. 2009).”
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“Other studies find men and women responding to face threats in different ways (Blackhart, Nelson, Knowles, & Baumeister, 2009; Downey, Mougios, Ayduk, London, & Shoda, 2004), including differences in how men and women exhibit aggressive behavior, with men more likely to aggress directly and women…”
Background
Effects of two different social exclusion paradigms on ambiguous facial emotion recognition
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“These ﬁ ndings are consistent with previous studies that indicated long-term exclusion causes “ emotional numbness ” (Bernstein & Claypool, 2012a, 2012b; Blackhart et al., 2009; Twenge et al., 2003).”
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“Different disciplines such as management, sociology and psychology are interested in researching occupational stress (Tsarenko & Tojib, 2011; Blackhart, Nelson, Knowles & Baumeister, 2009).”
Background
Who is more willing to engage in social rejection? The roles of self-esteem, rejection sensitivity, and negative affect in social rejection decisions
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“Although there is some controversy surrounding the degree to which social rejection paradigms a ﬀ ect self-esteem (Blackhart et al., 2009; Gerber & Wheeler, 2009), there is evidence that speciﬁc episodes of rejection do in fact threaten self-esteem (Bernstein & Claypool, 2012).”
Self-Regulation of Emotion in Students in Yogyakarta Indonesia: Gender Differences
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Provoked aggression, psychopathy and narcissism: Comparing the impact of social exclusion and insult.
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Preexposure to one social threat alters responses to another social threat: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence
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“This suggests that the two types of threats may underlie differences in the severity of “social injury” (Bernstein & Claypool, 2012); social exclusion may be regarded as a highly severe social injury and elicit more emotional pain (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
Background
Does ostracism/rejection impact self-disclosures? Examining the appeal of perceived social affordances after social threat
Grady, S. M., Eden, A., & Tamborini, R. (2024) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1093/jcmc/zmae012 · Cited by 5

Authors: Blackhart, G. C., Nelson, B. C., Knowles, M. L., & Baumeister, R. F.
Affiliations: East Tennessee State University (US)
Franklin & Marshall College (US)
Florida State University (US)
ORCID: Blackhart, Ginette C.
Knowles, Megan L.
Baumeister, Roy F.
Venue: Personality and Social Psychology Review
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2009-09-21
Volume: 13
Issue: 4
Pages: 269-309
ISSN: 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
1532-7957
DOI: 10.1177/1088868309346065
OpenAlex: W2141373402
Semantic Scholar: a6d420a191ff58603ad6c5d1da6d0a6ac43952d5
Cited by: 504
References: 193
Citations by year: 2026: 22 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 22
FWCI: 2.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Digital Commons - East Tennessee State University (East Tennessee State University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: social exclusion, interpersonal rejection, ostracism, emotional responses, self-esteem, positive affect, negative affect, sociometer theory, acceptance
MeSH terms: Affect, Emotions, Humans, Psychological Theory, Rejection, Psychology, Self Concept

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Rejection Elicits Emotional Reactions but Neither Causes Immediate Distress nor Lowers Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analytic Review of 192 Studies on Social Exclusion

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