Cited by 504Death Anxiety and Social ExclusionBullying, Victimization, and AggressionSocial and Intergroup Psychology

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Rejection Elicits Emotional Reactions but Neither Causes Immediate Distress nor Lowers Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analytic Review of 192 Studies on Social Exclusion

Blackhart, Ginette C., Nelson, Brian C., Knowles, Megan L., Baumeister, Roy F.·2009·Personality and Social Psychology Review

DOI 10.1177/1088868309346065

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Abstract

Competing predictions about the effect of social exclusion were tested by meta-analyzing findings from studies of interpersonal rejection, ostracism, and similar procedures. Rejection appears to cause a significant shift toward a more negative emotional state. Typically, however, the result was an emotionally neutral state marked by low levels of both positive and negative affect. Acceptance caused a slight increase in positive mood and a moderate increase in self-esteem. Self-esteem among rejected persons was no different from neutral controls. These findings are discussed in terms of belongingness motivation, sociometer theory, affective numbing, and self-esteem defenses.

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“This ﬁ nding aligns with the observations that negative effects of ostracism on self-esteem can be delayed, dependent on rumination, or subject to defensive reactions that protect the self (Blackhart et al., 2009; Kunda, 1990; Tesser, 2000).”
Background
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“5 Thus, organizational ostracism tends to reduce or eliminate the impact of many factors that have a positive effect on organizational success.”
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“This threat endangers individuals’ sense of belonging and, in turn, prompts strong reactions from them (Baumeister and Tice 1990; Blackhart et al. 2009; Williams 2009), including anxiety, which can take on the form of guilt (Baumeister et al. 1994).”
How Much Does This Tick You Off? Online Rejection and Criticism Lead to Negative Affect and Retaliatory Aggression
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Authors: Blackhart, G. C., Nelson, B. C., Knowles, M. L., & Baumeister, R. F.
Affiliations: East Tennessee State University (US)
Franklin & Marshall College (US)
Florida State University (US)
ORCID: Blackhart, Ginette C.
Knowles, Megan L.
Baumeister, Roy F.
Venue: Personality and Social Psychology Review
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2009-09-21
Volume: 13
Issue: 4
Pages: 269-309
ISSN: 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
1532-7957
DOI: 10.1177/1088868309346065
OpenAlex: W2141373402
Semantic Scholar: a6d420a191ff58603ad6c5d1da6d0a6ac43952d5
Cited by: 504
References: 193
Citations by year: 2026: 22 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 22
FWCI: 2.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Digital Commons - East Tennessee State University (East Tennessee State University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: social exclusion, interpersonal rejection, ostracism, emotional responses, self-esteem, positive affect, negative affect, sociometer theory, acceptance
MeSH terms: Affect, Emotions, Humans, Psychological Theory, Rejection, Psychology, Self Concept

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Rejection Elicits Emotional Reactions but Neither Causes Immediate Distress nor Lowers Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analytic Review of 192 Studies on Social Exclusion

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