Cited by 504Death Anxiety and Social ExclusionBullying, Victimization, and AggressionSocial and Intergroup Psychology

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Rejection Elicits Emotional Reactions but Neither Causes Immediate Distress nor Lowers Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analytic Review of 192 Studies on Social Exclusion

Blackhart, Ginette C., Nelson, Brian C., Knowles, Megan L., Baumeister, Roy F.·2009·Personality and Social Psychology Review

DOI 10.1177/1088868309346065

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Abstract

Competing predictions about the effect of social exclusion were tested by meta-analyzing findings from studies of interpersonal rejection, ostracism, and similar procedures. Rejection appears to cause a significant shift toward a more negative emotional state. Typically, however, the result was an emotionally neutral state marked by low levels of both positive and negative affect. Acceptance caused a slight increase in positive mood and a moderate increase in self-esteem. Self-esteem among rejected persons was no different from neutral controls. These findings are discussed in terms of belongingness motivation, sociometer theory, affective numbing, and self-esteem defenses.

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Background
Motivated gratitude and the need to belong: Social exclusion increases gratitude for people low in trait entitlement
MacKenzie, M. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2019) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-018-09749-3 · Cited by 23
Self-citation
Social anxiety as a precursor for depression: Influence of interpersonal rejection and attention to emotional stimuli
Kraines, M. A., White, E. J., Grant, D. M., & Wells, T. T. (2019) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.04.001 · Cited by 23
Debriefed but still troubled? About the (in)effectiveness of postexperimental debriefings after ego threat.
Miketta, S., & Friese, M. (2019) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000155 · Cited by 26
Evolutionary Perspectives on Interpersonal Acceptance and Rejection
Leary, M. R., & Cottrell, C. A. (2013) · The Oxford Handbook of Social Exclusion · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398700.013.0002 · Cited by 22
Unlike adults, children and adolescents show predominantly increased neural activation to social exclusion by members of the opposite gender
Bolling, D. Z., Pelphrey, K. A., & Vander Wyk, B. C. (2016) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2015.1117019 · Cited by 21
Psychosocial and behavioural consequences of ostracism across contexts
Chen, Z., Poon, K., Jiang, T., & Teng, F. (2025) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-024-00393-y · Cited by 22
A communal approach to sexual need responsiveness in romantic relationships
Impett, E. A., Kim, J. J., & Muise, A. (2020) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2020.1796079 · Cited by 27
“…theories indicate that human beings have a fundamental need to belong and feel accepted by others (e.g., Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Ryan & Deci, 2000), but experiencing interpersonal rejection – the refusal of desired social connectedness – directly violates this need (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
Background
An Experience Sampling Study on the Association Between Social Media Use and Self-Esteem
Miljeteig, K., & von Soest, T. (2022) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000333 · Cited by 21
Impact of supervisor phubbing on workplace incivility and workplace presenteeism: mediation and moderation effect of self-esteem and power distance
Hasan, S. A., Naseem, A., Mahmood, M., Sajjad, Z., & Mirza, M. Z. (2024) · Journal of Management Development · doi:10.1108/jmd-08-2023-0230 · Cited by 25
Boosting One's Social Identity: Effects of Social Exclusion on Ethnocentrism
Greitemeyer, T. (2012) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2012.712013 · Cited by 24
Depressed and excluded: do depressive symptoms moderate recovery from ostracism
Büttner, C. M., Rudert, S. C., & Greifeneder, R. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.07.075 · Cited by 21
“…ostracism are conceptually close phenomena (Wesselmann et al., 2019), rejection usually involves direct communication of not being welcome (e.g., Blackhart et al. 2009; Wesselmann et al. 2019), while ostracism may be better described as the absence of any communication or attention (Rudert et…”
Background
A paradox of support seeking and support response among gays and lesbians
Williams, S. L., LaDuke, S. L., Klik, K. A., & Hutsell, D. W. (2016) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12127 · Cited by 20
Stability of Peer Acceptance and Rejection and Their Effect on Academic Performance in Primary Education: A Longitudinal Research
BACETE, F. J. G., Tinoco, V. M., Perrin, G. M., & Rosel, J. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13052650 · Cited by 29
“Most people meet their need of belonging and experience acceptance from others throughout life, along with some experiences of rejection, and we seem to have enough protective mechanisms to cope with these occasional adverse experiences without great consequences in the long term [5,25].”
Background
Self-esteem modulates attentional responses to rejection: Evidence from event-related brain potentials
Li, H., Zeigler‐Hill, V., Luo, J., Yang, J., & Zhang, Q. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.02.010 · Cited by 20
Ostracism and Public Policy
Williams, K. D., & Nida, S. A. (2014) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732214549753 · Cited by 24
When You Don’t Quite Get What You Want
Andrews, W., & van Beest, I. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212450463 · Cited by 20
“However, it remains unclear whether the observed effects are generally the result of the satisfaction of inclusion, the distress of exclusion, or both (Blackhart et al., 2009; Gerber & Wheeler, 2009).”
Background
Age Differences in Reactions to Social Rejection: The Role of Cognitive Resources and Appraisals
Cheng, Y., & Grühn, D. (2014) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbu054 · Cited by 21
ÖRGÜTSEL DIŞLANMA ÖLÇEĞİNİN GELİŞTİRİLMESİ: GEÇERLİLİK VE GÜVENİRLİLİK ÇALIŞMASI
ABASLI, K., & Özdemir, M. (2019) · Trakya Üniversitesi sosyal bilimler dergisi/Trakya Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler dergisi · doi:10.26468/trakyasobed.481620 · Cited by 19
Feeling socially embedded and engaging at school: the impact of peer status, victimization experiences, and teacher awareness of peer relations in class
Harks, M., & Hannover, B. (2019) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-019-00455-3 · Cited by 21
“…can jeopardize students’ feeling of embeddedness: a large body of research attests that social rejection has severe negative psychological consequences as it blocks individuals’ basic need to belong (e.g., Baumeister et al. 2007; Williams 2009; meta-analytic review: Blackhart et al. 2009).”
Background
Contextual exclusion processing: an fMRI study of rejection in a performance-related context
Wagels, L., Bergs, R., Clemens, B., Bauchmüller, M., Gur, R. C., Schneider, F. W., Habel, U., & Kohn, N. (2016) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-016-9561-2 · Cited by 19
“Independent of the inconsistent hormonal stress response, the Cyberball task still has been characterized by high effect sizes with regard to negative affect (Blackhart et al. 2009) and elicits well-studied neural responses (Cacioppo et al. 2013; Rotge et al. 2014).”
Stomaching rejection: Self-compassion and self-esteem moderate the impact of daily social rejection on restrictive eating behaviours among college women
Beekman, J. B., Stock, M. L., & Howe, G. W. (2017) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2017.1324972 · Cited by 26
Differential Effects of Competence and Morality on Self-Esteem at the Individual and the Collective Level
Soral, W., & Kofta, M. (2020) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000410 · Cited by 21
When luxury brand rejection causes brand dilution
Khalifa, D., & Shukla, P. (2021) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.02.041 · Cited by 19
Interpersonal rejection results in increased appearance satisfaction for women who rely on body weight for self-worth.
O'Driscoll, L. M., & Jarry, J. (2015) · Body image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.09.003 · Cited by 20
Just loving these people: Extraverts implicitly associate people with reward
Wilkowski, B. M., & Ferguson, E. L. (2014) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2014.08.006 · Cited by 21
Sleep Problems Exacerbate the Emotional Consequences of Interpersonal Rejection
Gilbert, L. R., Pond, R. S., Haak, E. A., DeWall, C. N., & Keller, P. S. (2015) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2015.34.1.50 · Cited by 23
Social Exclusion: A Bibliometric Analysis and Future Research Directions in Advertising
Liu, Y., Bhoumik, K., Ulqinaku, A., & Grazzini, L. (2023) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2023.2255250 · Cited by 18
“This distress significantly influences behavior (Baumeister and Tice 1990; Blackhart et al. 2009; Leary and Baumeister 1995; Shrum, Fumagalli, and Lowrey 2023).”
Background
Heterosexual Rejection and Mate Choice: A Sociometer Perspective
Zhang, L., Liu, S., Li, Y., & Ruan, L.-J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01846 · Cited by 19
“Self-esteem declines in face of rejection (Blackhart et al., 2009) and causes negative emotional reactions.”
Background
Invisible at Work
Robinson, S. L., & Schabram, K. (2017) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316160930.010 · Cited by 18
Ostracism in the Workplace
Gamian-Wilk, M., & Madeja-Bień, K. (2018) · Precision manufacturing · doi:10.1007/978-981-10-5154-8_2-1 · Cited by 18
Inferred respect: a critical ingredient in customer satisfaction
Ashworth, L., & Bourassa, M. A. (2020) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-11-2019-0853 · Cited by 17
Social exclusion affects aggressive driving behaviour: The mediating effect of prosocial tendencies and driving anger
Qu, W., Zhang, Y., & Ge, Y. (2022) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2022.06.010 · Cited by 20

Authors: Blackhart, G. C., Nelson, B. C., Knowles, M. L., & Baumeister, R. F.
Affiliations: East Tennessee State University (US)
Franklin & Marshall College (US)
Florida State University (US)
ORCID: Blackhart, Ginette C.
Knowles, Megan L.
Baumeister, Roy F.
Venue: Personality and Social Psychology Review
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2009-09-21
Volume: 13
Issue: 4
Pages: 269-309
ISSN: 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
1532-7957
DOI: 10.1177/1088868309346065
OpenAlex: W2141373402
Semantic Scholar: a6d420a191ff58603ad6c5d1da6d0a6ac43952d5
Cited by: 504
References: 193
Citations by year: 2026: 22 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 22
FWCI: 2.18
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Digital Commons - East Tennessee State University (East Tennessee State University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: social exclusion, interpersonal rejection, ostracism, emotional responses, self-esteem, positive affect, negative affect, sociometer theory, acceptance
MeSH terms: Affect, Emotions, Humans, Psychological Theory, Rejection, Psychology, Self Concept

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Rejection Elicits Emotional Reactions but Neither Causes Immediate Distress nor Lowers Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analytic Review of 192 Studies on Social Exclusion

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