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Rejection Elicits Emotional Reactions but Neither Causes Immediate Distress nor Lowers Self-Esteem: A Meta-Analytic Review of 192 Studies on Social Exclusion
Abstract
Competing predictions about the effect of social exclusion were tested by meta-analyzing findings from studies of interpersonal rejection, ostracism, and similar procedures. Rejection appears to cause a significant shift toward a more negative emotional state. Typically, however, the result was an emotionally neutral state marked by low levels of both positive and negative affect. Acceptance caused a slight increase in positive mood and a moderate increase in self-esteem. Self-esteem among rejected persons was no different from neutral controls. These findings are discussed in terms of belongingness motivation, sociometer theory, affective numbing, and self-esteem defenses.
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Lambert, A. J., Eadeh, F. R., & Hanson, E. J. (2019) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2018.12.001 · Cited by 57
Interoceptive Awareness as a Moderator of Affective Responses to Social Exclusion
Werner, N. S., Kerschreiter, R., Kindermann, N. K., & Duschek, S. (2013) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027/0269-8803/a000086 · Cited by 66
Ford, M. B. (2020) · The Journal of General Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221309.2020.1860890 · Cited by 62
Social exclusion reduces happiness by creating expectations of future rejection
Sjåstad, H., Zhang, M., Masvie, A. E., & Baumeister, R. F. (2020) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2020.1779119 · Cited by 59
Self-citationPlugged in but not connected: Individuals’ views of and responses to online and in-person ostracism
Filipkowski, K. B., & Smyth, J. M. (2012) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2012.02.007 · Cited by 55
Verhagen, M., Lodder, G. M. A., & Baumeister, R. F. (2017) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12331 · Cited by 62
Self-citationPseudo-dyadic “interaction” on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk
Summerville, A. L., & Chartier, C. R. (2012) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-012-0250-9 · Cited by 50
Chen, G. M. (2013) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650213510937 · Cited by 50
“A meta-analysis of 192 studies of social exclusion shows all types of rejection cause a significant shift toward negative emotions, compared with controls (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
BackgroundDiminished self-concept and social exclusion: Disparagement humor from the target’s perspective
Ford, T. E., Buie, H. S., Mason, S. D., Olah, A. R., Breeden, C. J., & Ferguson, M. A. (2019) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2019.1653960 · Cited by 55
“Social experiences can signal social exclusion directly through explicit rejection (Blackhart et al., 2009; Wesselmann et al., 2016), or indirectly through subtler “rejection cues” such as exclusionary language (Richman & Leary, 2009; Wesselmann et al., 2016), mockery (Kerr & Levine, 2008) or…”
BackgroundInfluentialIncreased neural reactivity to socio-emotional stimuli links social exclusion and aggression
Beyer, F., Münte, T. F., & Krämer, U. M. (2013) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.12.008 · Cited by 48
El‐Awaisi, A., O’Carroll, V., Koraysh, S., Koummich, S., & Huber, M. (2020) · Journal of Interprofessional Care · doi:10.1080/13561820.2020.1819779 · Cited by 48
“These results are consistent with the results of Blackhart et al (Blackhart et al., 2009).”
BackgroundResultBeing Forgotten: Implications for the Experience of Meaning in Life
King, L. A., & Geise, A. C. (2011) · Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2010.522620 · Cited by 44
Poulsen, J. R., & Kashy, D. A. (2011) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430211430517 · Cited by 48
“These results mirror those of Blackhart et al. (2009) which suggest that different forms of exclusion can elicit different responses from targets.”
BackgroundResultOrganization-based self-esteem in work teams
Gardner, D. G., & Pierce, J. L. (2015) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430215590491 · Cited by 46
Feeling unrestricted by rules: Ostracism promotes aggressive responses
Poon, K., & Teng, F. (2017) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21714 · Cited by 46
Brain responses to social feedback in internalizing disorders: A comprehensive review
Rappaport, B. I., & Barch, D. M. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.012 · Cited by 48
High-Quality Listening Supports Speakers’ Autonomy and Self-Esteem when Discussing Prejudice
Itzchakov, G., & Weinstein, N. (2021) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqab003 · Cited by 53
Age differences in affective responses to inclusion experience: A daily diary study
Li, Y., Kleshinski, C. E., Wilson, K. S., & Zhang, K. (2021) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12484 · Cited by 45
“…the association between exclusion or similar constructs (e.g., ostracism and interpersonal rejection) and affective states (Beekman et al., 2016; Blackhart et al., 2009; Thompson et al., 2020), their between-subject designs make it impossible to articulate howwithin-person variation in…”
BackgroundResearch in Social Psychology: Consequences of Short- and Long-Term Social Exclusion
Bernstein, M. J. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-33033-4_3 · Cited by 49
Lincoln, S. H., Johnson, T., Winters, A., & Laquidara, J. R. (2021) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2020.11.056 · Cited by 44
The regulation of positive and negative social feedback: a psychophysiological study
Vanderhasselt, M.-A., Remue, J., Ng, K. K., Mueller, S. C., & De Raedt, R. (2015) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-015-0345-8 · Cited by 45
“feedback induces positive affect (Blackhart et al., 2009), this type of feedback could facilitate approach behaviors that motivate people to engage, explore and interact with their envi-”
InfluentialLanguage‐Based Exclusion and Prosocial Behaviors in Organizations
Kulkarni, M., & Sommer, K. L. (2014) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.21637 · Cited by 44
Resilience to Ostracism: A Qualitative Inquiry
Waldeck, D., Tyndall, I. T., & Chmiel, N. (2015) · The Qualitative Report · doi:10.46743/2160-3715/2015.2346 · Cited by 43
Relative deprivation: A mechanism for the ostracism–aggression link
Jiang, T., & Chen, Z. (2019) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2621 · Cited by 45
Responses to exclusion are moderated by its perceived fairness
Tuscherer, T., Sacco, D. F., Wirth, J. H., Claypool, H. M., Hugenberg, K., & Wesselmann, E. D. (2015) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2152 · Cited by 44
Whom to punish? How observers sanction norm‐violating behavior in ostracism situations
Rudert, S. C., Ruf, S., & Greifeneder, R. (2019) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2606 · Cited by 42
Emotions and antisocial behavior
Baumeister, R. F., & Lobbestael, J. (2011) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2011.617535 · Cited by 50
Self-citationAndrei, F., Mancini, G., Mazzoni, E., Russo, P. M., & Baldaro, B. (2015) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.07.014 · Cited by 59
Metadata
- Authors
- Blackhart, G. C., Nelson, B. C., Knowles, M. L., & Baumeister, R. F.
- Affiliations
- East Tennessee State University (US)
- Franklin & Marshall College (US)
- Florida State University (US)
- Venue
- Personality and Social Psychology Review
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2009-09-21
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 269-309
- ISSN
- 1088-8683 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7957
- OpenAlex
- W2141373402
- Semantic Scholar
- a6d420a191ff58603ad6c5d1da6d0a6ac43952d5
- Cited by
- 504
- References
- 193
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 29 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 30 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 61 · 2020: 35 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 31 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 2.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Personality and Social Psychology Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Digital Commons - East Tennessee State University (East Tennessee State University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- social exclusion, interpersonal rejection, ostracism, emotional responses, self-esteem, positive affect, negative affect, sociometer theory, acceptance
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Emotions, Humans, Psychological Theory, Rejection, Psychology, Self Concept
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