Cited by 290Impact of Technology on AdolescentsDigital Media and PhilosophyPersonality Traits and Psychology

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Are Social Media Ruining Our Lives? A Review of Meta-Analytic Evidence

Appel, Markus, Marker, Caroline, Gnambs, Timo·2020·Review of General Psychology

DOI 10.1177/1089268019880891

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Abstract

A growing number of studies have examined the psychological corollaries of using social networking sites (SNSs) such as Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter (often called social media). The interdisciplinary research area and conflicting evidence from primary studies complicate the assessment of current scholarly knowledge in this field of high public attention. We review meta-analytic evidence on three hotly debated topics regarding the effects of SNSs: well-being, academic achievement, and narcissism. Meta-analyses from different laboratories draw a rather equivocal picture. They show small associations in the r = .10 range between the intensity of SNS use and loneliness, self-esteem, life satisfaction, or self-reported depression, and somewhat stronger links to a thin body ideal and higher social capital. There is no indication for potential devastating effects of social media on school achievement; social media use and school grades are unrelated for adolescents. The meta-analyses revealed small to moderate associations between narcissism and SNS use. In sum, meta-analytic evidence is not in support of dramatic claims relating social media use to mischief.

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Sevilla-Fernández, D., Machimbarrena, J. M., Escortell, R., Ruiz, D. M., Buelga, S., & González‐Cabrera, J. M. (2026) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-026-09047-z · Cited by 3
“Their social and flexible nature makes them very attractive to children and adolescents, and, therefore, their relationship with or impact on mental health is now being analyzed, especially when their use is excessive or problematic (Appel et al., 2020 ; Valkenburg et al., 2022 ).”
Social Media Addiction and Internet Gaming Disorder in Adolescents: Testing the Spectrum and Connectivity Hypotheses Using a Network Approach
Ruzzante, F., Gugushvili, N., & Verduyn, P. (2026) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-026-01641-3 · Cited by 3
Exploring the relationship between social media use and loneliness in adolescents and young adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Feng, H., Lien, Y., Cian, S.-Y., Wang, W.-Y., Li, Y.-T., Chen, C.-H., & Wu, Y. (2026) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-026-03175-4 · Cited by 7
“Het - erogeneity across studies, likely due to varying conceptualizations and measurement strategies, also highlights the need for more consistent approaches to studying this phenomenon [64].”
The Role of Envy in the Relation between Social Networking Sites Use and Depression: a Systematic Review
di Perna, T., Carraturo, F., Giannicola, V., Nacchia, M. A., Pepe, M., Muzii, B., Bottone, M., Sperandeo, R., Maldonato, N., & Scandurra, C. (2022) · IEEE International Conference on Cognitive Infocommunications · doi:10.1109/coginfocom55841.2022.10081751 · Cited by 2
“Adverse affective consequences of SM use, particularly depression [5], have been the subject of much, if not entirely conclusive, research [5, 6].”
Background
Content creators as social influencers: predicting online video posting behaviors
Jeffres, L. W., Atkin, D. J., & Neuendorf, K. A. (2024) · Online Media and Global Communication · doi:10.1515/omgc-2024-0022 · Cited by 3
The associations between social media intensity, problematic social media use, and adolescents’ mental health: A cross-lagged panel network analysis
Liu, G., Lin, T., Chen, Z., Ma, L., Liao, W., Li, Y., Li, L., Miao, X., & Liu, Y. (2025) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2025.108524 · Cited by 4
White Beauty: The Moderating Role of Social Media Addiction on Social Comparison and Skin Tone Satisfaction
Rohimi, A. A., Olagoke, S. M., & Husin, W. N. I. W. (2021) · Asian Journal of Advanced Research and Reports · doi:10.9734/ajarr/2021/v15i1030431 · Cited by 4
“As mentioned in [23], social media could provide vast opportunities for social comparison to occur because of its users' tendencies to compare themselves with other people on dimensions that”
Background
Social media uses amongst adolescents: motives, minority stress and eudaimonic well-being
López‐Sáez, M. Á., Pérez-Torres, V., Ruiz, Y. P., Lobato-Rincón, L. L., Currás, H. T., & Angulo-Brunet, A. (2024) · Anales de Psicología · doi:10.6018/analesps.556871 · Cited by 3
“…the use of online social media have found that the increased social capital and positive feedback that come from interactions help to increase well-being in teenagers, while social comparison and exposure to risk situations like cyberbullying and grooming decrease well-being (Appel et al., 2020).”
BackgroundInfluential
How do Norwegian Adolescents Experience The Role of Social Media in Relation to Mental Health and Well-Being: A Qualitative StudyPreprint
Hjetland, G. J., Schønning, V., Hella, R. T., Veseth, M., & Skogen, J. C. (2020) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-133641/v1 · Cited by 3
It’s not what you do, it’s the way that you do it: An experimental task delineates among reactive and interactive styles of behaviour on social networking sitesPreprint
Shaw, D. J., Kaye, L. K., Ngombe, N., Kessler, K., & Pennington, C. R. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/ztkmv · Cited by 3
No relationships between self-reported Instagram use or type of use and mental well-being: A study using a nationally representative online sample of UK adults
Roberts, S. G. B., Malcolm, C., McCarty, K., & Pollet, T. V. (2024) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2024-1-3 · Cited by 2
“…last two decades has led to active debates about whether using SNSs has a positive or negative effect on well-being in both academic research (e.g., Appel et al., 2020; Faelens et al., 2021; Orben, 2020b; Twenge et al., 2022) and wider society (e.g., Haidt, 2021; Lanier, 2018; Orben, 2020a;…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Diffusion of innovation, pre‐registration/licence student nurses' use of social media: A reflexive thematic analysis
Cathala, X., & Moorley, C. (2024) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/jan.16405 · Cited by 2
“Worthy of note is that Appel et al. ( 2020 ) meta-analysis evidence does not support those negative claims.”
Individual differences in the prediction of mental health by smartphone and Instagram use: the moderating role of extraversion and neuroticism
Gugushvili, N., Täht, K., Ruiter, R. A. C., & Verduyn, P. (2025) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2025.2506661 · Cited by 2
“…of studies have been conducted in this regard and meta-analyses of the resulting evidence revealed weak negative associations between time spent on smartphones and mental health (r ≈ – .10) (Ferguson et al. 2022), and between time spent on SNS and mental health (r ≈ – .10) (Appel et al. 2020).”
Religion and Social Media Use: Protective Factors for Youth Well-Being in the Digital Age?
Upenieks, L., & Hill, T. D. (2026) · Journal of Psychology and Theology · doi:10.1177/00916471251404432 · Cited by 2
“By facilitating upward social comparisons, social media contributes to chronic feelings of envy and inferiority (Appel et al., 2020; Feinstein et al., 2013; Steers et al., 2014).”
Development and application of the Masculinity Content Classification Framework
Fisher, K., Benakovic, R., O’Gorman, K. M., Rice, S. M., Tierney, K., Miller‐Idriss, C., Dashtgard, P., & Seidler, Z. E. (2026) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2026.102402 · Cited by 4
Technology in Relationships and Satisfaction: Nationality as a Moderator
Hertlein, K. M. (2021) · International Journal of Systemic Therapy · doi:10.1080/2692398x.2021.1945199 · Cited by 2
“Numerous studies have discovered that technology can have positive impacts on a couple’s satisfaction in their relationship as well as introduce challenges (Ahlstrom et al., 2012; Appel et al., 2020; GoodmanDeane et al., 2016; Hampton et al., 2017; Hertlein & Ancheta, 2014; Miller-Ott et al., 2012; Sullivan et al., 20…”
Background
Literacy Achievement in Aotearoa New Zealand: What is the Evidence?
Hood, N., & Hughson, T. A. (2022) · New Zealand Journal of Educational Studies · doi:10.1007/s40841-022-00271-2 · Cited by 2
Social networks addictions and academic performance of students at the University of Kinshasa
Mwenzi, J. E., & Moyamani, E. A. (2023) · Futurity Education · doi:10.57125/fed.2023.06.25.13 · Cited by 2
“The lack of influence of the variables faculty and place of residence on the social networking addiction of the study subjects calls into question the conclusions of Appel et al. (2020) where these variables are identified as determinants of social network use.”
The Interplay Between Social Media, Moral Perceptions, and the Proliferation of Mimetic Desires Among Youth in South Asia
Udayanga, S. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-87624-1_403-1 · Cited by 2
Time Spent Using Digital Technology, Loneliness and Well-Being Among Three Cohorts of Adolescent Girls and Boys – A Moderated Mediation Analysis
Jokić, B., Dedić, Z. R., & Šimon, J. (2024) · Psihologijske teme · doi:10.31820/pt.33.1.2 · Cited by 2
“…between time spent using DT and well-being, the results of our study add to the large body of research demonstrating that the effect of time spent using DT is negative, but small (Appel et al., 2020), and is stronger for younger adolescents (e.g., Allen & Vella, 2015; Bruggeman et al., 2019).”
Result
Internet overdose e apprendimento scolastico. Un’analisi degli studenti italiani attraverso i dati della rilevazione PISA 2022
Giancola, O., & Salmieri, L. (2024) · Media Education · doi:10.36253/me-16483 · Cited by 2
Adicción a las redes sociales y habilidades sociales en estudiantes de secundaria
Agreda, D. I., & Salas-Blas, E. (2024) · Propósitos y Representaciones · doi:10.20511/pyr2024.v12.2023 · Cited by 5
Examining the Psychological Vulnerabilities and Motives Behind Problematic TikTok Use Among Youths: A Cross-Cultural Study Using a Network Approach
Santoro, G., Rossi, A. A., Manari, T., Omar, B., Martos-Méndez, M. J., Mannarini, S., Gori, A., Schimmenti, A., & Musetti, A. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2025.2508312 · Cited by 2
“Previous studies showed that SNS use can yield both positive and negative effects (Appel et al., 2020; Valkenburg, 2022; Valkenburg et al., 2022).”
The Relationship Between Technoference, Work-Family Interface, and Telework in the Age of 4IR
Turan, S. G. (2020) · Advances in human resources management and organizational development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-3347-5.ch019 · Cited by 2
The Impact of Perceived Timeliness of Information Release on Subjective Well-Being: A Heterogeneity Perspective
Ma, Y., & Zhou, S. (2024) · Journalism and Media · doi:10.3390/journalmedia5040089 · Cited by 2
Social Media and Mental Health
Carboni-Jiménez, A., Vaillancourt, M., Zhu, P., & Seon, Q. (2021) · McGill Journal of Medicine · doi:10.26443/mjm.v20i1.852 · Cited by 2
Supplemental Material for Quantifying Smartphone “Use”: Choice of Measurement Impacts Relationships Between “Usage” and Health
Shaw, H., Ellis, D. A., Geyer, K., Davidson, B. I., Ziegler, F. V., & Smith, A. (2020) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000022.supp · Cited by 1
Digital engagement, school burnout and academic performance: Longitudinal within-student relationsPreprint
Hietajärvi, L., Maksniemi, E., Lonka, K., Hakkarainen, K., Alho, K., & Salmela‐Aro, K. (2022) · OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/a2bk7 · Cited by 5
An Antidote to Overpathologizing Computer-Mediated CommunicationPreprint
Katiyar, T., Hunt, A., Chaudhary, N., & Jaeggi, A. V. (2023) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/t4azn · Cited by 2
Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) and Social Media Addiction: The Moderated Mediation Role of Mental Well-being and MindfulnessPreprint
Gezgin, D. M. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6322544/v1 · Cited by 3
Specificities of social network sites and effects on subjective well-being
Masciantonio, A., Bourguignon, D., Herman, G., Tavani, J., Balbo, L., Résibois, M., Klein, O., Fointiat, V., & Translations, C. A. (2023) · Bulletin de psychologie · doi:10.3917/bupsy.580.0157 · Cited by 1
Anger, Aggression, and Violence and Their Management
Singh, J. K., & Misra, G. (2024) · International and cultural psychology/International and cultural psychology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-46349-5_22 · Cited by 1
What is the impact of social media on the psychological well-being of children and adolescents?
Kolouch, D. (2025) · Česko-slovenská pediatrie · doi:10.55095/cspediatrie2025/001 · Cited by 1

Authors: Appel, M., Marker, C., & Gnambs, T.
Affiliations: University of Würzburg (DE)
Johannes Kepler University of Linz (AT)
Corresponding author: Appel, Markus
ORCID: Appel, Markus
Gnambs, Timo
Venue: Review of General Psychology
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2019-10-16
Volume: 24
Issue: 1
Pages: 60-74
ISSN: 1089-2680 (ISSN-L)
1939-1552
DOI: 10.1177/1089268019880891
OpenAlex: W2981075629
Semantic Scholar: cbd4f71d3c79a5521394000d393dd6917cb231b8
Cited by: 290
References: 111
Citations by year: 2026: 43 · 2025: 48 · 2024: 54 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 51 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 14
FWCI: 48.71
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Review of General Psychology (publishedVersion)
Funders: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (AP 207/2-1)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
Social Sciences › Communication › Digital Media and Philosophy
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Keywords: social media use, social networking sites, well-being, loneliness, self-esteem, life satisfaction, depression, thin ideal, social capital, academic performance, narcissism, adolescents, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter

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Are Social Media Ruining Our Lives? A Review of Meta-Analytic Evidence

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