Towards a modular language curriculum for using tasks

May combine two claims.

Many objections raised by Sheen and Swan against TBLT are invalid because they misunderstand TBLT and ignore relevant research.

“However, many of the points raised by Sheen and Swan are invalid, displaying a misunderstanding of what TBLT is and an ignorance of the relevant research -see Ellis (2009) and Long (2016) for refutations of their objections.”

• cites Ellis (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Long (2016) sourcePartly supported

  In sections 2.1 and 3.5 (pages unavailable), Long argues that Swan discounts empirical research and mischaracterizes TBLT, calling one objection a straw man. These passages support the claim about Swan, but the passages found do not address Sheen's objections, so Long alone does not support that part of the attribution. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Yalden (1983) found a remarkably similar order in four audiolingual textbooks.

“Yalden (1983) found a remarkably similar order in four audiolingual textbooks.”

• cites Yalden (1983)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There is still no agreement on which specific features to investigate, and researchers operationalize Robinson's features inconsistently, so results cannot easily be compared across studies.

“Some progress in this direction has been made (see, for example, Sasayama, 2016) but there is still no agreement about specific features that need to be investigated, and individual researchers do not operationalize those features that figure in Robinson's theory in a consistent manner so that results cannot easily be compared across studies.”

• cites Sasayama, 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Other commentators have pointed out that identifying target tasks is not always possible or sensible.

“However, other commentators have pointed out that it is not always possible or sensible to try to identify target-tasks.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In TSLT tasks are methodological devices for practising specific structures, whereas in TBLT tasks define the content.

“tasks are simply methodological devices for practising specific structures in TSLT but serve as the means for defining the content of TBLT.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A curriculum is needed that combines a product-based component realized through TSLT and a process-based component realized through TBLT.

“I will draw on both Brumfit's (1984) educational arguments for combining accuracy and fluency approaches and on my own theory of second language learning (Ellis, 1994) to argue the need for a curriculum that combines a product-based component realised through TSLT and a process-based component realised through TBLT.”

• cites Brumfit's (1984)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Ellis, 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

TSLT may develop basic L2 competence for most learners but may not be effective for advanced competence.

“The caveats that DeKeyser raises are important as they suggest that while TSLT may serve to develop a basic L2 competence for most learners it may not be effective for developing more advanced levels of competence”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

TSLT is product-oriented and accuracy-oriented, while TBLT is process-oriented and fluency-based.

“TSLT draws on a Type A syllabus, it is product-oriented, and it involves an accuracyoriented approach.In contrast, TBLT draws on a Type B syllabus, is process-oriented, and constitutes a fluency-based approach”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Both task-supported and task-based teaching are needed, particularly where pure task-based teaching is problematic.

“The position adopted in this paper, however, is that both approaches are needed especially in instructional contexts where 'pure' task-based teaching may be problematic for various reasons.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Brumfit distinguished product-based accuracy syllabuses from process-based fluency syllabuses and argued that both are needed in a language programme.

“Brumfit saw these two approaches as distinct but argued that both are needed in a language programme.He proposed an integrated curriculum with a variable emphasis on accuracy and fluency according to the learners' developmental stages.”

• cites Brumfit (1984)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The proposed model has a primary task-based module with focus on form, followed by a secondary structural module once basic fluency is achieved.

“It consists of a primary task-based module implemented with focuson-form (Long, 1991) and, once a basic fluency has been achieved, supported by a secondary structural module to provide for explicit accuracy-oriented work”

• cites Long, 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The proposed modular model assumes that fluency should be developed first.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Brumfit saw a linguistic syllabus as serving both initial teaching of linguistic tokens and use as a checklist for coverage and appropriacy.

“Brumfit saw a linguistic syllabus as serving two purposes.It provides a structure for the initial teaching of linguistic tokens and it can be used as a checklist to enable teachers to check coverage and appropriacy of material.”

• cites BrumfitNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Long claimed that TSLT and TBLT are incompatible because they are based on different psycholinguistic theories.

“Long (2015), on the other side of this debate, claimed that TSLT and TBLT are incompatible because they are based on different psycholinguistic theories”

• cites Long (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Type B syllabuses focus on how language is learned, are non-interventionist, and do not pre-select the elements to be learned.

“White argued that Type B syllabuses are fundamentally different in that they focus on how language is to be learned, are non-interventionist and involve no pre-selection of the elements to be learned.”

• cites WhiteNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

There is a natural order and sequence of acquisition for grammatical features, which is evidence for a built-in learner syllabus that form-focused instruction cannot easily subvert.

“Research demonstrating that there is a natural order and sequence of acquisition for grammatical features (Ellis, 2008; Chapter 3) constitutes evidence for a built-in learner syllabus that cannot be easily subverted through form-focused instruction.”

• cites Ellis, 2008Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A modular curriculum with separate task-based and structure-based components is proposed.

“The paper makes a case for a modular curriculum consisting of separate (i.e.nonintegrated) task-based and structure-based components.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although Littlewood overstates the difficulties of introducing TBLT, many problems he identifies deserve serious attention.

“While Littlewood overstates the difficulties involved in introducing TBLT, many of the problems he mentions warrant serious attention.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Skill-learning theory supports PPP, but DeKeyser acknowledged that the resulting L2 knowledge may be automatized explicit knowledge rather than true implicit knowledge.

“The theory then lends support to presentation-practice-production (PPP), the main way in which TSLT has been realized and arguably the mainstream methodology in structural language teaching today.DeKeyser was careful to recognize the limitations of PPP.First, he acknowledged that the L2 knowledge that results may not be true implicit knowledge”

• cites DeKeyserNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The structural component should be a checklist rather than a syllabus, so teachers can selectively address features that are problematic for their students during tasks.

“An argument is presented for treating the structural component as a checklist rather than as a syllabus so as to allow teachers to address selectively those features that are found to be problematic for their students when they perform tasks.”

May combine two claims.

TSLT is based on skill-learning theory, which holds that learning begins with declarative representation and then becomes proceduralized and automatized through practice.

“TSLT is based on skill-learning theory as this has been applied to language learning (DeKeyser, 1998).This theory claims that learning commences with a declarative representation of a linguistic feature, which is first proceduralized and then automatized through practice.”

• cites DeKeyser, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

TSLT and TBLT are commonly treated in the literature as alternative and incompatible approaches, each with supporters.

“TSLT and TBLT are often presented in the literature as alternative ways of teaching and incompatible, each with its own advocates.”

May combine two claims.

In TSLT learners are directed to attend to a pre-determined form, while in TBLT attention to form arises incidentally during task performance.

“in TSLT students are directed to attend to a pre-determined form whereas in TBLT attention to form arises incidentally while learners are performing the task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Brumfit emphasized project work for fluency, supported by comprehensible and relevant input, presentation of linguistic tokens, and corrective feedback.

“Instead, he emphasized the role of projects to provide opportunities for fluency work.Project work was to be supported through the presentation of relevant linguistic tokens of the target language (but avoiding over-exact analyses of the language to be so taught), input material that is comprehensible, interesting and relevant, and corrective feedback.”

• cites BrumfitNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In TBLT, L2 learning is implicit by default and learners follow their own path; instruction should make problematic forms salient through focus on form.

“In TBLT, L2 learning is implicit -'the default learning mechanism' (Long, 2015) with learners following their own learning path to the target grammar.”

• cites Long, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Tasks are holistic and therefore consist of clusters of features.

“The obvious problem with a taxonomic approach to determining task complexity is that tasks are holistic in nature and thus comprise clusters of features.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Interactional authenticity can be achieved by making sure tasks satisfy the requirements for a task.

“Interactional authenticity can be achieved by ensuring that the tasks meet the requirements for a task mentioned earlier.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

A convincing theory of task complexity is still far off and may not be achievable given the nature of tasks.

“We are a long way from a convincing theory of task complexity and perhaps such a theory is not achievable, given the nature of tasks.”

May combine two claims.

Immersion studies show that learners do not need grammatical instruction to acquire considerable grammatical competence, and basic word order and salient morphology can be acquired incidentally.

“Immersion studies (e.g.Johnson and Swain, 1997) have shown that learners do not need grammatical instruction to acquire considerable grammatical competence.Basic word order and salient morphological features can be acquired incidentally without any formal instruction.”

• cites Johnson and Swain, 1997Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

There are risks when syllabus designers choose topics based solely on their own judgment.

“However, there are dangers in syllabus designers basing the choice of topics on their own judgment”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Explicit knowledge can contribute indirectly to implicit knowledge by facilitating noticing and noticing-the-gap and by editing output.

“(2) Explicit knowledge can facilitate the processes of noticing and noticing-the-gap that lead to implicit knowledge.”

• cites EllisNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The proposed modular curriculum keeps the structural and task-based components separate, unlike Brumfit's integrated syllabus.

“In contrast, in the modular curriculum I am proposing, the structural and task-based components of the syllabus are kept separate.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Consciousness-raising tasks assist learners in building explicit mental representations of linguistic rules and regularities.

“syllabus is by using consciousness-raising tasks to help learners construct explicit mental representations of linguistic rules and regularities.”

May combine two claims.

Prabhu's early task types use topics that eleven-year-old secondary students could be expected to know, while his later task types use less familiar topics and imagination.

“Thus, for example, his early task types all involve topics that eleven-year-old secondary students could be expected to be familiar with.Later task types (e.g.'the postal system”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Tasks with the plus features are presumed to be less complex than tasks with the minus features.

“Tasks with the + features are presumed to be less complex than tasks with thefeatures.”

• cites Robinson (2010)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Consciousness-raising tasks serve a dual purpose and can integrate a focus on form with a focus on communication in one activity.

“Such tasks, however, have a double purpose and thus potentially integrate a focus on form and a focus on communication within the same activity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Prabhu identified several factors for horizontal grading: amount of information, nature of reasoning, precision in interpreting information and reaching outcomes, and degree of abstractness.

“Prabhu suggested a number of factors that need to be consideredthe amount of information to be handled, the nature of the reasoning needed, the precision needed in interpreting information and reaching outcomes, and the degree of abstractness.”

• cites Prabhu (1987)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Consciousness-raising tasks meet the criteria for a task: they are meaning-centred, contain a gap, draw on learners' own linguistic resources, and have a communicative outcome.

“They conform to the definition of a task; that is, they are meaning centred in the sense that the talk they elicit is directed at solving a linguistic problem, there is a gap (it can be an information or opinion gap depending on the design of the task), they elicit the use of learners' own linguistic resources as the task is performed, and there is a communicative outcome (a statement of the rule”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In Prabhu's syllabus, vertical grading comes from sequencing task types, while horizontal grading comes from considering the difficulty of operations in tasks within each type.

“Vertical grading in Prabhu's syllabus is achieved by sequencing the different task types; horizontal grading is achieved by considering the difficulty of the operations involved in the particular tasks belonging to each task type.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

A checklist serves as a reference for observing whether learners can use specific linguistic features accurately when communicating.

“A checklist serves as a reference for observing whether learners are able to use specific linguistic features accurately when communicating.”

May combine two claims.

A syllabus does not dictate methodology, so lessons based on a linguistic syllabus can incorporate task-based activities.

“Brumfit also made the important point that a syllabus does not dictate the methodology to be employed, thus allowing for the possibility that lessons motivated by a linguistic syllabus could incorporate”

• cites BrumfitNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

TSLT prioritizes accuracy over fluency and assumes that implicit knowledge is mastered item by item, which is not how an L2 is acquired.

“The problem with such an approach is that it prioritizes accuracy over fluency and assumes that implicit knowledge is mastered item by item, which as Long (2015) pointed out is not how an L2 is acquired.”

• cites Long (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Explicit knowledge is secondary but important for formal language work; it is mainly accessible through controlled processing and can be automated to some extent.

“Explicit knowledge is secondary importance but still an important part of language proficiency as it is needed in some kinds of formal language work (e.g.academic writing).Ellis suggested that it is accessible mainly through controlled processing but can also be automated to some extent.”

• cites EllisNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Implicit knowledge is primary for communication, and the acquisition of grammatical features is slow and gradual.

“Ellis saw implicit knowledge as primary in the sense that without it communication is very difficult.The acquisition of grammatical features is a slow and gradual process”

• cites EllisNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Consciousness-raising tasks are not intended to lead to production of the target structure.

“It is important to understand that consciousness-raising tasks do not aim at production of the target”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

In task-based courses built on academic subject content, such as immersion programmes, the topics are taken from the relevant subject syllabi.

“In the case of task-based courses based on academic subject content as in immersion programs, the choice of topics will be derived from the relevant subject syllabi.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

According to Robinson's Triadic Componential Framework, resource-directing task characteristics determine task complexity and offer a way to sequence L2 tasks in instruction.

“According to Robinson's Triadic Componential Framework (Robinson, 2010), the resource-directing characteristics of tasks (e.g.+/-few elements; +/-here-and-now; +/-no reasoning demands) determine task complexity and provide”

• cites Robinson (2010)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A structural syllabus and TSLT cannot serve as the basis for a complete language programme because grammar is complex, there is not enough time for full-system practice, and TSLT may not suit complex features except for high-aptitude learners.

“Nevertheless, it is still difficult to see how a structural syllabus and TSLT can serve as the basis for a complete language programme as (1) grammar is complex and there will not be enough time to provide the in depth practice needed for mastery of the full system (Krashen, 1982) and, in any case, (2) as I have already noted, TSLT may not be appropriate for complex grammatical features except”

• cites Krashen, 1982Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Yalçin and Spada (2016)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Robinson (2011) argued that a taxonomy of task characteristics is needed both as a focus for research on their learning effects and as a basis for classifying and sequencing tasks.

“Robinson (2011) argued that a taxonomy of task characteristics is needed which can serve as”

• cites Robinson (2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Implicit learning is usage-based and involves chunks that are only slowly decomposed into rule-like constructions.

“As SLA research has shown, implicit learning is usage-based, involving chunks that are only slowly decomposed into rule-like constructions (R. Ellis, 1984;N. Ellis, 1996).”

• cites R. Ellis, 1984Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites N. Ellis, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

If early L2 acquisition is lexical rather than grammatical, early instruction should prioritize incidental acquisition through tasks from the start.

“If the early stages of L2 acquisition are lexical rather than grammatical (Lewis, 1993), there might be a case for an initial explicit component for teaching vocabulary but arguably, what is needed in the early stages is an approach that prioritizes incidental acquisition through the performance of tasks from the start.”

• cites Lewis, 1993Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The principles for selecting and grading grammatical content are well established, though perhaps not empirically motivated.

“The principles for selecting and grading the content of the grammatical content of a syllabus are well-established although not perhaps empirically motivated.”

May combine two claims.

Ellis's theory is founded on the distinction between implicit and explicit knowledge and on the role explicit knowledge plays in developing implicit knowledge.

“Ellis' theory is founded on the distinction between implicit and explicit knowledge and, in particular, on the role that explicit knowledge plays in the development of implicit knowledge.”

• cites R. Ellis (1993;1994)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In the modular curriculum proposed, the structural component is a checklist rather than a syllabus.

“In the modular curriculum I am proposing, however, the structural component takes the form of a checklist rather than a syllabus.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Explicit instruction may distort how tasks are performed and reduce their effectiveness for developing general L2 proficiency.

“Another reason is that explicit instruction may in fact distort how tasks are performed, reducing their effectiveness as tools for developing L2 proficiency in general”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A structural syllabus at least provides a systematic basis for a language programme.

“a structural syllabus does at least provide a systematic basis for a language programme, as Brumfit (1984) pointed out.”

• cites Brumfit (1984)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

If language proficiency is a set of general abilities, then there is no reason for the task-based component's content to come from a needs analysis of target tasks.

“If the latter, then, arguably there is no reason for the content of the task-based component to be derived from a needs analysis of target tasks.”

May combine two claims.

The proposed curriculum is not structural, although a structural syllabus and explicit language teaching can have a place in a modular curriculum.

“The curriculum that I wish to argue for, therefore, is not a structural one although, as will become clear, such a syllabus along with explicit language teaching can find a place in a modular curriculum.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Priority should be given to incidental acquisition of implicit knowledge at all times in a language programme.

“In other words, in this model priority is given to the incidental acquisition of implicit knowledge at all times in a language programme.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

An explicit structural component is needed to complement the task-based component.

“This is why an explicit structural component is needed to complement the task-based component.”

May combine two claims.

A metric is needed to determine how combinations of resource-directing and resource-dispersing features affect task complexity and L2 output, but no such metric currently exists.

“Thus, there needs to be some metric for determining how combinations of different resourcedirecting and resource-dispersing features affect task complexity and L2 output but no such metric is currently available.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Robinson's framework is a useful way to sequence tasks horizontally, but it has problems.

“Robinson's framework provides a useful way of sequencing tasks horizontally [13] but it is not without problems.”

May combine two claims.

Long's task-based syllabus is premised on unfocused tasks derived from a needs analysis and on focus-on-form strategies that draw attention to forms needed for task outcomes.

“Long's advocacy of a task-based syllabus is premised on unfocused tasks derived from a needs analysis of the target tasks relevant to specific groups of learners.It also depends crucially on the use of focus-on-form strategies that attract attention to those linguistic forms required to achieve the communicative outcome of a task”

• cites LongNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Option 2 faces the same objection as Option 1, but even more strongly.

“The second option (shown schematically in Figure 2) runs up against the same objection but even more so.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Prabhu's proposal offers a foundation for both vertical and horizontal grading of tasks in a syllabus.

“It provides a basis for both the vertical and horizontal grading of tasks in the syllabus.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Ellis proposed that a structural syllabus should be limited to developing explicit knowledge through inductive consciousness-raising tasks rather than practice.

“Therefore, Ellis suggested that the function of a structural syllabus should be limited to developing learners' explicit knowledge, which is not subject to a built-in syllabus.He proposed this could be achieved through inductive consciousness-raising tasks”

• cites Ellis (1993) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ellis (2015) proposed that initial task types should be input-based with closed outcomes, and that output-based tasks with open outcomes should be introduced later.

“Ellis (2015) proposed that the first task types should be input-based with closed outcomes with output-based tasks involving open outcomes introduced progressively at later stages.”

• cites Ellis (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The integration of explicit and implicit knowledge must be learner-driven and cannot be directed externally through instruction.

“The rationale for separation is that the integration of explicit and implicit knowledge must necessarily be learnerdriven and cannot be directed externally through instruction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

If structural content is presented as a checklist, there is no need to solve the problem of grading and sequencing structural items.

“In other words, if the structural content is presented as a checklist there is no need to address the thorny problem of how to grade and sequence structural items.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Option 3 reverses the traditional sequence: task-based work comes first, the structural component later and for as long as needed, with the task-based component occupying more space throughout.

“This option then reverses the traditional sequence of instruction.It calls for a taskbased approach initially with the structural component kicking in at a later stage and continuing as long as learners provide evidence of the need for it.The task-based component, however, occupies the greater space in the model throughout.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Prabhu argued that when a syllabus is meant for large-scale teaching, tasks are best specified in general terms.

“Prabhu (1987) argued that if the syllabus is intended as a basis for teaching on a large scale (for example, in state school systems), the tasks are best specified in general terms.”

• cites Prabhu (1987)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Ellis later downplayed direct conversion of explicit to implicit knowledge because there is insufficient information about developmental features and it is impractical to assess readiness.

“Subsequently, Ellis (2006) emphasized these indirect roles and downplayed (1), which he saw having little relevance to language teaching because there is insufficient information about which features are developmental and non-developmental and because of the impracticality of establishing whether individual learners are developmentally ready to benefit from explicit instruction.”

• cites Ellis (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

One way to implement a structural syllabus is through consciousness-raising tasks that help learners construct explicit mental representations of linguistic rules and regularities.

“Earlier I suggested that one way of implementing a structural syllabus is by using consciousness-raising tasks to help learners construct explicit mental representations of linguistic rules and regularities.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Evidence of learners' difficulties with specific structures can only be obtained by inspecting their performance on tasks in the task-based component.

“This can only be obtained by inspecting how they perform the tasks in the taskbased component of the syllabus.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In the modular curriculum, learning progresses mainly incidentally or implicitly through tasks, but a check is needed to see whether learners have mastered specific grammatical features.

“in the modular curriculum shown in Figure 3 learning progresses primarily incidentally/ implicitly through performing tasks but a check is needed to see if learners have mastered specific grammatical features.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The structural component of a modular curriculum aims to overcome the adverse effects of learned selective attention through explicit instruction, either via TSLT or consciousness-raising tasks.

“The purpose of the structural component of a modular curriculum is to overcome the adverse effects of learned selective attention through explicit instructioneither through TSLT or consciousness-raising tasks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

A well-designed checklist would guide teachers on how linguistic context affects the likelihood of errors.

“A well-designed checklist would provide guidance as to how linguistic context influences the likelihood of errors occurring.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Two processes interfere with learners' ability to attend to new information in the input.

“Two processes interfere with the learners' ability to attend to new information in the input.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

There is a need for a complementary curriculum strand in which residual linguistic problems are addressed more intensively through TSLT or consciousness-raising tasks.

“It is for this reason that I have argued there is a need for a complementary strand to the curriculum where residual linguistic problems are addressed more intensively through TSLT or consciousness-raising tasks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In a modular syllabus, the task-based component consists of tasks to be performed, while the structural component consists of a list of grammatical structures.

“In a modular syllabus, the content of the task-based component will consist of the tasks to be performed while in the structural component it will consist of a list of grammatical structures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Experience suggests that reactive focus-on-form may not overcome learned selective attention.

“However, experience suggests that it may not succeed in overcoming learned selective attention.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Long suggested that specific target tasks can be grouped into task types and that pedagogic tasks can then be developed to meet the requirements of a task.

“Long (1985;2015) suggested that specific target tasks can be grouped together into task types (for example, 'buying a railway ticket' and 'buying an airline ticket' could be grouped as 'buying a ticket') and then pedagogic tasks developed to ensure that the activities meet the requirements of a 'task'.”

• cites Long (1985;2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The paper argues for a modular curriculum framework with two separate components, a structural component and a task-based component, without attempting to integrate them at the syllabus level.

“To sum up, I have argued for a modular curriculum framework consisting of two separate componentsa structural component and a task-based componentbut with no attempt to integrate them at the level of syllabus.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The paper argues for a modular curriculum in which the task-based component is primary but is supported by a language-related component consisting of a checklist of problematic linguistic features that guides explicit teaching complementarily.

“Thus I have argued for a modular curriculum where the task-based component is primary, but supported by a language-related component consisting of a checklist of problematic linguistic features that can guide explicit language teaching in a way that is complementary to the task-based work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is a problem in determining how general task types have to be.

“Also, there is the problem of determining just how 'general' the task-types have to be.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Integrating explicit language instruction into a task-based curriculum is difficult, which is why separate modules are argued for.

“I have acknowledged the difficulty of integrating explicit language instruction into a task-based curriculum and for this reason I have argued for separate modules.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

The principles and procedures for sequencing the content of the two components are necessarily different.

“The principles and procedures for sequencing the content of the two components are necessarily different.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

A task-based curriculum seeks to create communicative contexts that let learners develop their interlanguages in their own way while supporting them through focus-on-form.

“It seeks to create communicative contexts that will allow learners' to grow their interlanguages in their own way while helping them to do so through focus-on-form.”

May combine two claims.

Of the three options, option (3) is most compatible with current knowledge of L2 acquisition: the task-based component is primary, with a structural component addressing residual problems after basic proficiency develops.

“Of the three options for this framework, I have suggested that the one most compatible with what we know about L2 acquisition is option (3) where the task-based component is primary but -and it is this respect the model I am proposing differs most clearly from Long (2015) -there is a structural component to address residual problems with specific grammatical features once basic L2 proficiency has”

May combine two claims.

Some integration of structural and task-based work can occur at the level of methodology through TSLT or consciousness-raising tasks, but the overall curriculum remains modular with changing emphasis as a programme develops.

“Some integration of structural and task-based work can take place at the level of methodology either by means of TSLT or through performing consciousness-raising tasks but the overall curriculum is modular with the emphasis on each component changing as a programme develops.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Long (2015) acknowledged that some L2 forms are tricky, perhaps because of L1 influence, and that explicit attention to such forms might be needed.

“Long (2015) acknowledged that some L2 forms are 'tricky, perhaps because of L1 influence' (p.28) and also that explicit attention to such form might be needed.”

• cites Long (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Designing a syllabus requires two decisions: what content to include and how to sequence it so that there is progression from simple to complex.

“The design of a syllabus requires two kinds of decisions to be made: (1) which content to include and (2) how to sequence of the content so that there is progression from simple to complex.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Cameron (2001) maintained that a needs-based syllabus is not feasible for young foreign language learners.

“Cameron (2001), for example, maintained that a needs-based syllabus is not feasible for young foreign language learners.”

• cites Cameron (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Persistent failure to use past tense in narrative tasks would justify direct teaching of past tense to develop explicit knowledge over time, not necessarily to eradicate errors immediately.

“If, for example, it becomes clear that learners are persistently failing to use past tense in narrative tasks, it would justify the direct teaching of past tense, not necessarily with the aim of eradicating such errors immediately but rather of developing explicit knowledge to facilitate the processes involved in mastering past tense over time.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Long argued that explicit attention should be reactive and occur only within the task-based lesson as focus-on-form.

“He argued, however, that this should be reactive and occur only within the context of the task-based lesson -”

• cites Long (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

TSLT may not produce implicit knowledge, but it may lead to automatized explicit knowledge that is functionally equivalent to implicit knowledge and thus a useful substitute.

“TSLT may not result in implicit knowledge but it may lead to automatized explicit knowledge that is functionally equivalent to implicit knowledge -a useful substitute.”

May combine two claims.

Learned selective inattention is caused by the learner's L1, the inherent saliency of one cue over another, and overgeneralization of an unmarked linguistic form.

“Causes of learned selective inattention are the learner's L1, the inherent saliency of one cue over another, and the overgeneralization of an unmarked linguistic form.”

• cites N.Ellis, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

English structures subject to overshadowing and blocking include past tense, third person -s, epistemic modal verbs, definite and indefinite articles, passive constructions, hypothetical conditionals, and unusual word orders.

“Examples of English structures that are subject to overshadowing and blocking are morphological features such as past tense, third person-s, epistemic modal verbs, the definite and indefinite articles, passive constructions, hypothetical conditionals, and unusual or exceptional word orders”

• cites N.Ellis, 2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

For specific purpose courses, conducting a needs analysis to identify target tasks is the obvious way to ensure the relevancy of a task-based syllabus.

“In the case of specific purpose courses, the obvious way to ensure the relevancy of a task-based syllabus is to conduct a needs analysis to identify the target tasks that the learners need to be able to perform.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The primary rationale for a task-based curriculum is that it is learning-centred.

“The primary rationale for a task-based curriculum is that it is learning-centred.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The structural checklist only suggests the problems that particular groups of learners are likely to have.

“However, the structural checklist is only suggestive of the problems that particular groups of learners are likely to experience.”