Position paper: Moving task-based language teaching forward

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Long questioned whether metalinguistic knowledge gained at one time can be used by the learner at another time, as Swan claimed.

“but he also questioned whether metalinguistic knowledge acquired at one time can be used by the learner at another timeas Swan claimed can happen.”

• cites Long (2016) sourceDisputed

  In §2.3, Long says it would be “patently absurd” to suppose that metalinguistic knowledge provided at Time 1 could never be used at Time 2. He questions the long-term benefit in Swan’s example and says such knowledge is usually of limited value, but does not question whether later use is possible. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites SwanNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The critiques directed at TBLT rest on misunderstandings, concern non-issues, and have already been adequately answered in prior work.

“The critiques levelled at TBLT are based on “misunderstandings” about TBLT and concern “non-issues” and have already been adequately addressed (see Ellis, 2009;Long, 2016).”

• cites Ellis, 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Long, 2016 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract says most of the 14 criticisms are nonissues, and section 3.1 calls one criticism a misunderstanding. But the Abstract and Conclusion also acknowledge that some criticisms raise important matters, and the passages do not establish that the critiques had already been adequately answered in prior work. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

More recent readability measures also take account of discourse factors such as cohesion and coherence.

“However, in more recent work (e.g.Pitler and Nenkova, 2008) measures that also take account of discourse factors such as cohesion and coherence have been developed.”

• cites Pitler and Nenkova, 2008 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Long (2016) produced his own list of real issues, covering only items 3, 9 and 10 of the author's Table 1, based on his particular conception of TBLT.

“Long (2016), in an issue of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics devoted to TBLT, produced his own list of 'real issues' (only #3, 9 and 10 in Table 1) based on his particular view of what constitutes TBLT .”

• cites Long (2016) sourcePartly supported

  Section 5, “Tasks and TBLT: Some Real Issues,” says Long will mention three real issues, and the paper defines the conception of TBLT he uses. Our copy cannot establish whether those issues correspond only to items 3, 9 and 10 of the citing author's Table 1. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Researchers have investigated the relative effects of input-providing versus output-prompting feedback, and of implicit versus explicit feedback.

“Some researchers (e.g.Lyster, 2004;Ammar and Spada, 2006) investigated the relative effects of input-providing feedback (e.g.recasts) versus output-prompting feedback (e.g.clarification requests, metalinguistic feedback and elicitation).”

• cites Lyster, 2004 sourceSupported
• cites Ammar and Spada, 2006 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Long (2016) stated that acquisition does not occur only online during communication.

“Long (2016) pointed out that that this is not the case”

• cites Long (2016) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Goo and Mackey (2013) argue for carefully designed studies investigating the effects of narrowly prescribed types of corrective feedback.

“Goo and Mackey (2013), for example, argue for carefully designed studies that investigate the effects of narrowly prescribed types of corrective feedback.”

• cites Goo and Mackey (2013) sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Long stressed that focus on form must be reactive.

“What Long emphasized is that focus on form must be reactive.”

• cites Long (2016) sourcePartly supported

  Section 2.1 describes focus on form in TBLT as reactive and often triggered by task work. But it does not say it must always be reactive; section 2.5 also allows teachers or task designers to deliberately direct attention to language during meaning-focused use. The claim turns a description into an absolute requirement. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Some progress has been made in measuring explicit and implicit knowledge separately, although problems remain.

“Some progress has been made (see, for example, Ellis, 2005) although problems still remain (see Suzuki and DeKeyser, 2015).”

• cites Ellis, 2005 sourceSupported
• cites Suzuki and DeKeyser, 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Complexity, accuracy and fluency improve when a task is repeated, but this improvement does not appear to transfer to a new task.

“Complexity, accuracy and fluency improve when the task is repeated but this improvement does not seem to transfer to the performance of a new task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Erlam (2016) found that tasks teachers designed in an in-service programme did not fully match a definition of a task.

“Erlam (2016) found that the tasks she asked teachers to design in an in-service programme did not fully match up to a definition of a 'task' [5].”

• cites Erlam (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Carless (2004) noted that teachers do not always have a clear idea of what a task is.

“A particular problem noted by Carless (2004) is that teachers do not always have a clear idea of what a 'task' is.”

• cites Carless (2004) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In Li, Zhu and Ellis (2016), both immediate and delayed feedback groups improved in accuracy, while the no-feedback group did not.

“Both the immediate and delayed feedback groups showed gains in accuracy whereas the no-feedback group did not.”

• cites Li, Zhu and Ellis (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In Quinn (2014), both immediate and delayed feedback groups improved significantly in accurate use of English passive constructions, with no difference between them.

“There were statistically significant improvements in the accurate use of the target structure (English passive constructions) in both the immediate and delayed feedback groups but no difference between them.”

• cites Quinn (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In Erlam (2016), teachers tended to design tasks with prior presentation of language, reflecting their existing ideas about what a task should do.

“In particular, the teachers tended to design tasks that involved the prior presentation of language reflecting their pre-existing ideas of what a task should do.”

• cites Erlam (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Swain's research provides strong evidence that language-related episodes occur during tasks and that learning results, especially when the problems in those episodes are resolved successfully.

“Swain's research (e.g. Swain, 1998) also provides convincing evidence that language-related episodes arise as learners perform tasks and that learning results especially if the problems that these episodes address are resolved successfully.”

• cites Swain, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Quinn (2014), the no-feedback condition also improved similarly, suggesting that gains came from simply doing the task.

“However, in this study the no feedback condition also resulted in similar levels of improvement suggesting that gains resulted from simply performing the task.”

• cites Quinn (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Adams' own study found that learners gave each other feedback during opinion-gap and information-gap tasks and that this led to both grammar and vocabulary learning.

“Adams' own study found that learners did provide each other with feedback when performing opinion-gap and information-gap tasks and that it resulted in both grammar and vocabulary learning.”

• cites AdamsNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

From the author's experience, teachers often ask how to assess students in TBLT when there are no explicit linguistic targets.

“However, from my own experience teachers often ask how they assess students in TBLT when there are no explicit linguistic targets.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

There is a lack of discussion about what participatory structure is appropriate for different groups of students.

“What is lacking is any discussion about what constitutes an appropriate participatory structure for different groups of students.”

May combine two claims.

In Li, Zhu and Ellis (2016), gains appeared only on a grammaticality judgement test, not on an elicited oral imitation test, suggesting the feedback produced only explicit knowledge.

“However, the gains were only evident in a grammaticality judgement test, not in an elicited oral imitation test, suggesting that the feedback only resulted in explicit knowledge.”

• cites Li, Zhu and Ellis (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Misconceptions about TBLT are widespread.

“Misconceptions about TBLT abound.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

To date, very little research has examined how effective teacher education or training programmes are in helping teachers implement TBLT.

“However, to date, there has been very little research investigating the how effective teacher education/ training programmes are in enabling teachers to implement TBLT.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is plenty of evidence that explicit instruction involving focused tasks is effective.

“There is plenty of evidence to show that explicit instruction involving focused tasks is effective.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

There is disagreement about the relative merits of task-based and task-supported language teaching.

“Disagreements exist regarding the relative merits of task-based and task-supported language teaching.”

May combine two claims.

Measuring the learning that results from unfocused tasks is difficult and has rarely been undertaken.

“Measuring the learning that results from unfocused tasks is difficult and, in fact, has been rarely undertaken.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Real-world tasks aim at situational authenticity because they are based on target tasks performed outside the classroom.

“Real-world tasks aim at situational authenticity as they are based on the target tasks performed in the outside world.”

• cites Bachman and Palmer, 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Determining input complexity is relevant for all tasks that incorporate linguistic input in the task materials.

“Determining input complexity is relevant for all tasks that incorporate linguistic input in the task materials.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Course designers and materials writers need reliable criteria for determining task complexity.

“Long is right as course designers and materials writers do need reliable criteria for determining task complexity.”

May combine two claims.

Reliable criteria for determining task complexity do not currently exist, and what is needed is not just a list of putative design variables but a theory of how the variables interact.

“However we do not currently have such criteria and we need not just a list of putative design variables but a theory of how the variables interact to determine complexity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Alternative versions of TBLT are possible and are necessary in order to accommodate different instructional contexts.

“My list is longer, reflecting my view that alternative versions of TBLT are possible and indeed are necessary to accommodate different instructional contexts.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Consciousness-raising tasks have no place in Long's version of TBLT, where all tasks must address functional needs.

“Consciousness-raising tasks, however, clearly do not have a place in Long's version of TBLT where all tasks must address functional needs although an exception might be in a task-based programme for linguists!”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Input-based tasks are easily conducted with the whole class, which makes them well-suited to large classes and to teachers used to lockstep teaching.

“Input-based tasks are easily conducted with the whole class making them well-suited to large classes and to teachers more used to teaching in lockstep.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Task complexity matters for syllabus design if one accepts that there should be a progression from simple to complex.

“The issue of task complexity is important for syllabus design if one accepts the basic premise that there should be a progression from 'simple' to 'complex'.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: A task-based syllabus should progress from simple to complex.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Language can be made the topic of talk just like any other topic.

“After all, one can make language the topic of talk just like any other topic.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Input-based tasks are useful for introducing task-based teaching to learners accustomed to a more traditional structural approach who may resist treating language as a tool.

“Input-based tasks are also useful for introducing taskbased teaching to learners who are accustomed to a more traditional, structural approach and who may be resistant to a mode of teaching that requires them to treat language as a tool rather than as an object.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Tasks are holistic and thus involve conglomerates of factors.

“The secondand to my mind the more serious problem -is that tasks are holistic and thus involve conglomerates of factors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Explicit knowledge of specific features that are problematic for learners might facilitate attention to those features in subsequent input and output.

“Again, I do not envisage that such tasks should comprise a complete programme but see them as a means for developing explicit knowledge of specific features that are problematic to learners on the grounds that such knowledge might facilitate attention to these features in subsequent input and output.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Certain linguistic features constitute learning problems that persist even at advanced stages of proficiency.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A needs-based approach is not always appropriate, and it is questionable whether tasks should be defined as target tasks for all L2 learners.

“Bachman (2002), in a discussion of task-based assessment also questioned whether tasks should be defined as target tasks for all L2 learners and argued that a needs-based approach is not always appropriate.”

• cites Bachman (2002) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Situational authenticity is not particularly relevant when the purpose is to assess the communicative abilities of general purpose learners.

“He saw situational authenticity as not particularly relevant when the purpose is to assess the communicative abilities of general purpose learners.”

• cites Bachman (2002) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Robinson's Cognition Hypothesis, particularly the Task Complexity factors of his Triadic Componential Framework, is the most developed framework for sequencing tasks from simple to complex and has attracted the most research.

“The most developed framework for sequencing tasks from simple to complexand the one that has attracted the most research -is Robinson's (2001;2011) Cognition Hypothesis, in particular those factors in his Triadic Componential Framework relating to Task Complexity, which he claims provide “a parsimonious way to sequence L2 tasks in a program of instruction” (2011; 10).”

• cites Robinson (2001;2011)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Focused tasks have a place both in a language programme and in research designed to inform pedagogy.

“In Ellis (2003), however, I argued that focused tasks have a place in both a language programme and in research designed to inform pedagogy.”

• cites Ellis (2003) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Certain linguistic features constitute learning problems that persist even at advanced stages of proficiency.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For written input there are standard measures of readability, such as the Dale-Chall formula.

“In the case of written input there are standard measures of readability, for example, the Dale-Chall formula (1948).”

• cites Dale-Chall formula (1948)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Focused tasks allow for intensive corrective feedback directed at a target structure, and such feedback is effective.

“They allow for intensive corrective feedback directed at a target structure and, as is now well-established, such feedback is effective (Lyster, Saito and Sato, 2012).”

• cites Lyster, Saito and Sato, 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

A clear distinction should be made between design and implementation variables, and a task, being a workplan, should be specified solely in terms of its design features.

“My proposal is that a clear distinction should be made between design and implementation variables and that 'task' is a workplan and so should be specified solely in terms of its design features.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The issues in designing and implementing TBLT courses often reflect differing positions among TBLT advocates, which suggests a need for debate and, if possible, consensus.

“In many cases, these issues concern different positions among advocates of TBLT, suggesting the need to debate them and, if possible, arrive at some consensus.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

A theory of task complexity must take account of the conditions under which a task is to be performed.

“Above all, we need to recognize that such a theory must also take account of the conditions under which a task is to be performed.”

May combine two claims.

Clear differences in cognitive load were evident only between the least and the most complex task, suggesting that fine gradations do not affect actual task complexity.

“However, clear differences were only evident between the least and the most complex task, suggesting that fine gradations do not impact on the actual complexity of tasks.”

• cites Sasayama (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Developing a task-based syllabus involves both vertical and horizontal sequencing of tasks.

“Finally, developing a task-based syllabus involves both the vertical and horizontal sequencing of tasks.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Skehan concludes that design features do not generate consistency or robust generalizations and that putative manipulations of task complexity may not in reality produce different levels of complexity.

“While he does not reject the impact that design features can have on performance, he concludes that “they do not generate consistency or robust generalizations” (p.37) and that “putative manipulations of task complexity may not in reality produce different levels of complexity” (p.40)”

• cites Skehan (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Input-based tasks are needed for beginners, who lack the resources to produce in the L2, and they supply comprehensible input that helps learners get started in learning an L2.

“Input-based tasks are needed for beginners, who lack the resources to produce in the L2; they provide learners with the comprehensible input that helps get them started in learning an L2.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It is difficult to see how a task can be designed based solely on two of the many factors that make up the resource-directing and resource-dispersion variables in Robinson's model.

“It is difficult to see how a task can be designed based solely on two of the many factors [1] that comprise the resource directing and resource-dispersion variables in Robinson's model.”

May combine two claims.

Output-based tasks provide greater opportunities for negotiation of meaning and of form, which have been shown to promote L2 acquisition.

“They provide greater opportunities for the negotiation of meaning (Long, 1996) and of form (Lyster, 2001), which have been shown to promote L2 acquisition.”

• cites Long, 1996 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lyster, 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Skehan (2016) makes a clear distinction between design and implementation options.

“Skehan (2016) makes a clear distinction between design and implementation options.”

• cites Skehan (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A pedagogic task lacks situational authenticity but aims at interactional authenticity.

“A pedagogic task lacks situational authenticity but aims at interactional authenticity (i.e. the kind of natural language processing found in communication in the world outside the classroom).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Robinson's work on task complexity appears to be primarily concerned with horizontal sequencing, but vertical sequencing also needs to be considered.

“Robinson's work on task complexity appears to be primarily concerned with horizontal sequencing but clearly we also need to consider vertical sequencing as well.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Older readability measures were limited because they were based only on vocabulary level and sentence length.

“A limitation of these older measures is that they were based on vocabulary level and sentence length only.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Whether tasks are defined as real-life tasks with both situational and interactional authenticity or as pedagogic tasks with only interactional authenticity must depend on the instructional context.

“Whether tasks are to be defined as real-life tasks that have both situational and interactional authenticity or as pedagogic tasks that have interactional authenticity but no situational authenticity must surely depend on the instructional context.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In the pure TBLT promoted by Long, there is no room for explicit instruction preceding the performance of a task.

“In 'pure' TBLTthe kind that Long (2015) promotesthere is no room for explicit instruction preceding the performance of a task.”

• cites Long (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The main problem for task complexity arises in determining the complexity of output tasks.

“The main problem arises when it comes to determining the complexity of output tasks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A focused task must satisfy the same criteria as an unfocused task.

“A focused task, of course, must satisfy the same criteria as an unfocused task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Little progress on task complexity is likely until some fundamental issues have been addressed.

“To my mind, however, little progress is likely until some fundamental issues have been addressed.”

May combine two claims.

Although TBLT advocates acknowledge that both input-based and output-based tasks have a role, TBLT is nearly always discussed and researched in terms of output-based tasks.

“Advocates of TBLT acknowledge that both input-based and output-based tasks have a role to play but, in fact, TBLT is nearly always discussed and researched in terms of output-based tasks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A needs-based syllabus is not feasible for young foreign language learners.

“Cameron (2001), for example, argued that a needs-based syllabus is not feasible for young foreign language learners.”

• cites Cameron (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There are established ways of determining the complexity of input.

“There are established ways of determining the complexity of input.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Existing typologies of task types lack a principled way of classifying tasks.

“What is lacking is a principled way of classifying such tasks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This typology of corrective feedback strategies has provided a basis for making and testing theory-based claims about the efficacy of different types of feedback.

“This typology of corrective feedback strategies has provided a basis for making and testing theory-based claims about the efficacy of different types of feedback.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Both focus on form and focus on forms can result in the kind of L2 knowledge, implicit or automatized explicit, that enables learners to communicate fluently and accurately.

“If we accept that both focus on form and focus on forms can result in the kind of L2 knowledge (implicit or automatized explicit knowledge) that enables learners to communicate fluently and accuratelyand there is plenty of evidence to support thisthen we still need to ask whether, in the long term, one approach is more effective or efficient than the other.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Immediate online focus on form seems preferable because of the psycholinguistic importance of learning through interaction and because TBLT research has studied it.

“It would seem that immediate, online focus on form is preferred given the psycholinguistic importance attached to learning-through-interaction and the fact that the TBLT research has investigated this.”

May combine two claims.

Taken together, the two studies suggest that reactive focus on form facilitates learning and that pre-emptive focus on form, especially when student-initiated, is beneficial.

“Taken, together, these two studies suggest that, as Long claims, reactive focus on form facilitates learning, but also that preemptive focus on form, especially when initiated by students, is beneficial.”

May combine two claims.

Implicit feedback caters to implicit learning, whereas explicit feedback is more likely to result in the conscious attention to form that Schmidt saw as important for acquisition and explicit learning.

“Theoretical arguments can also be made for implicit and explicit feedback; implicit feedback caters to implicit learning whereas explicit feedback is more likely to result in the conscious attention to form that Schmidt (2001) saw as important for acquisition and explicit learning.”

• cites Schmidt (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The two dimensions of feedback intersect, so each feedback strategy can be classified as input-providing or output-prompting and as implicit or explicit.

“These two dimensions of feedback intersect so each feedback strategy can be classified in terms of whether it is input-providing or output-prompting and implicit or explicit.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

An obvious way to facilitate intentional initial perception of new forms in the input is through explicit instruction.

“An obvious way to achieve this is through explicit instruction.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Long now regards explicit grammar rules as acceptable when they respond to problems arising during communication.

“He currently considers the provision of explicit grammar rules as legitimate so long as this occurs in response to problems that arise during communication.”

• cites Long, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Whether and to what extent explicit instruction interferes with how a task is performed is an important issue for TSLT.

“Whether and to what extent explicit instruction 'interferes' in the way a task is performed is an important issues for TSLT.”

May combine two claims.

In Li and Ellis's study, the explicit instruction group produced language that was less complex and fluent and that also tended to be less accurate overall.

“In this study, however, the explicit instruction did have an effect on global complexity, accuracy and fluency with the explicit instruction group producing language that was less complex and fluent and that also tended to be less accurate overall.”

• cites Li and EllisNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Mochizuki and Ortega (2008) found that a group given a hand-out with explicit information about English relative clauses produced more than twice as many relative clauses in a focused task as a group without the hand-out, with no difference between groups in global complexity and fluency.

“Mochizuki and Ortega (2008) reported that a group that received a hand-out providing explicit information about English relative clauses produced more than twice as many relative clauses when they performed the focused task than a group that did not receive the hand-out but that there was no difference in the global complexity and fluency of the production of the two groups.”

• cites Mochizuki and Ortega (2008) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Long's earlier support for recasts as implicit feedback is less visible in his later work, partly because he now views feedback as serving both intentional and incidental learning.

“Long's early commitment to recasts as an implicit form of feedback (see Long, 1996;2006) is less evident in his later publications (Long, 2015) in part because he now sees feedback as catering to intentional learning as well as to incidental learning.”

• cites Long, 1996;2006Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Long, 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

It would be unwise to dismiss pre-emptive focus on form.

“Given that students (adult ones at least) tend to naturally topicalize problematic linguistic points during the performance of a task it would seem unwise to dismiss preemptive focus on form.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Students, at least adult ones, tend to naturally topicalize problematic linguistic points during the performance of a task.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Preparatory Attention and Memory Theory also claims that learners performing a difficult task realize they lack crucial information and are more likely to attend to it when it later becomes available.

“This theory also claims that when learners perform a difficult task they will realize they lack crucial information and thus are more likely to pay attention to this information when it is subsequently made available to them.”

• cites Quinn (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Ellis, Basturkmen and Loewen (2001) distinguished pre-emptive and reactive form-focused episodes occurring in task-based lessons.

“Ellis, Basturkmen and Loewen (2001) distinguished pre-emptive and reactive form-focused episodes (FFEs) that occurred in task-based lessons.”

• cites Ellis, Basturkmen and Loewen (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Delayed feedback remains reactive if it addresses linguistic problems that arose during task performance.

“It is worth noting, though, that delayed feedback is still 'reactive' as long as it addresses linguistic problems that arose during the performance of the task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In task-supported language teaching, specific linguistic forms are first taught explicitly and then practised in real operating conditions using tasks.

“In contrast, in task-supported language teaching (TSLT), specific linguistic forms are first taught explicitly and then practised in “real operating conditions” using tasks (DeKeyser, 1998).”

• cites DeKeyser, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Long supports using a range of feedback strategies, a position also taken by Ellis (2009) and Lyster and Ranta (2013).

“In other words, he advocates a variety of feedback strategiesa view echoed by Ellis (2009) and Lyster and Ranta (2013).”

• cites Ellis (2009) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lyster and Ranta (2013)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Reactive focus on form mainly consists of corrective feedback.

“Reactive focus on form mainly consists of corrective feedback.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Preparatory Attention and Memory Theory proposes that learning improves when attention is complete rather than divided among multiple goals.

“Quinn (2014), drew on Preparatory Attention and Memory Theory, which proposes that learning is enhanced when complete attention is available rather than divided between multiple goals.”

• cites Quinn (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Successful uptake was more likely to occur in learner-initiated pre-emptive and in reactive form-focused episodes than in teacher-initiated pre-emptive episodes.

“They reported that successful uptake was more likely to occur in learner-initiated pre-emptive and in reactive FFEs than in teacher-initiated pre-emptive FFEs.”

• cites Ellis, Basturkmen and Loewen (2001) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Teachers are likely to use a range of feedback strategies naturally rather than relying on only one type.

“Second, teachers are likely to quite naturally employ a variety of strategies rather than stick to a single type”

May combine two claims.

Even if tasks in TSLT result in better learning of the target structure, they will not provide the same opportunities for natural language use and may in the long term be less successful in developing all-round L2 proficiency.

“Even if they result in better learning of the target structure, they will not provide the same opportunities for natural language use and thus, in the long term, may be less successful in developing all round proficiency in the L2.”

May combine two claims.

Of the 448 form-focused episodes identified in 12 hours of teaching, 165 were student-initiated pre-emptive, 41 were teacher-initiated pre-emptive, and 223 were reactive.

“In the 448 FFEs Ellis et al identified in 12 hours of teaching, 165 were student-initiated pre-emptive FFEs, 41 pre-emptive teacher-initiated FFEs and 223 reactive FFEs.”

• cites Ellis et alNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A common pedagogical recommendation is that feedback should be immediate in accuracy work but delayed in fluency work.

“a common position in the pedagogical advice given to teachers is that feedback should be immediate in accuracy work but delayed in fluency work (Hedge, 2000;Scrivener, 2005).”

• cites Hedge, 2000Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Scrivener, 2005Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Long (2006) claimed that recasts are more likely to promote acquisition because they provide positive input for new features, and disputed whether uptake of feedback has any utility.

“Long (2006), however, claimed that recasts are more likely to promote acquisition as they provide learners with positive input for 'new' features and disputed whether the uptake of feedback has any utility.”

• cites Long (2006)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Research indicates that recasts tend to be the most common feedback in meaning-focused interaction elicited by tasks.

“although research does suggest that recasts tend to predominate in the meaning-focused interactions that tasks elicit.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

It is notoriously difficult to devise tests that provide separate measures of explicit and implicit knowledge.

“This question is notoriously difficult to address given the difficulty in devising tests that afford separate measures of explicit and implicit knowledge.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

TSLT's ability to result in unplanned use occurs only when massive practice of the target feature is provided, which is not feasible if teachers must cover all the linguistic features listed in the syllabus.

“Long does not deny this but argues that it only occurs when massive practice of the target feature found such as that found in Day and Shapson (1994) and Harley (1989) is provided, which he suggests is not feasible if teachers need to cover all the linguistic features listed in the syllabus.”

• cites Day and Shapson (1994)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Harley (1989) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Key features of successful innovation include teacher dissatisfaction with current practice, feasibility in context, match with student needs, ease of understanding principles and procedures, required originality, and teacher ownership.

“These included the teacher's dissatisfaction his/her current practice, the feasibility of the new approach in the particular context in which the teacher works, the extent to which the new approach is seen as matching the needs of the students, how easy the principles and procedures of the new approach are to grasp, the extent to which teachers are required to demonstrate a high degree of original”

• cites Ellis (1997)Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Prabhu (1987) recognized that a new pedagogy is an unsettling intruder into teachers' mental frames because it conflicts with old perceptions and threatens routines and security.

“A new perception of pedagogy, implying a different pattern of classroom activity, is an intruder into teachers' mental framesan unsettling one, because there is a conflict of mismatch between the old and new perceptions and, more seriously a threat to prevailing routines and to the sense of security dependent on them.(p.105).”

• cites Prabhu (1987)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Quinn (2014) randomly assigned 90 intermediate adult ESL learners to immediate, delayed, and no-feedback conditions.

“In Quinn (2014) 90 intermediate-level adult ESL learners were randomly assigned to immediate, delayed and no feedback conditions.”

• cites Quinn (2014)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Group work may not be the best way to introduce TBLT to students whose prior instruction was only traditional lockstep teaching.

“I have also argued that using group work may not be the best way to introduce students to TBLT if their previous experience of classroom instruction consisted only of traditional, lockstep teaching.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Longitudinal studies are needed to establish transferability.

“Again, to establish transferability longitudinal studies are needed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

TBLT aims at integrative, holistic learning and cannot be assessed with discrete-point tests, which would also harm teaching through negative washback.

“TBLT is directed at integrative, holistic learning and cannot be assessed through discrete-point tests, which if used would also have a negative wash-back effect on teaching.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Input-based tasks are easier to assess by checking whether learners achieve the task outcome.

“Input-based tasks can be assessed more easily in terms of whether learners achieve the outcome of the task (e.g. can correctly draw in the route described on a map).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Such studies were generally conducted in laboratory settings and with intermediate or advanced learners.

“However, in general studies such as these were carried out in a laboratory setting and with intermediate or advanced level learners.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

TBLT, with its focus on holistic teaching and learning by doing, is a major innovation for many teachers.

“TBLT, with its emphasis on holistic teaching and learning-through-doing constitutes a major innovation for many teachers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Li, Zhu and Ellis (2016) conducted a classroom-based study.

“Li, Zhu and Ellis (2016) reported a classroom-based study.”

• cites Li, Zhu and Ellis (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Adams (2007) concluded that learner-learner interaction may offer a site for feedback, but the limited range of feedback types may not meet learners' developmental needs.

“while learner-learner interactions may provide a site for feedback to occur, the restricted set of feedback types may not provide evidence appropriate to learner developmental needs”

• cites Adams (2007)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

This misconception may have arisen because much research has studied learners performing tasks in pairs or groups.

“This misconception may again have arisen because so much of the research has investigated how learners perform tasks in pairs or groups.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

More evidence is needed on how common and facilitative focus on form is in different participatory structures.

“More evidence is needed to show how far focus on form is common and facilitative of learning in different participatory structures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Students may not be convinced that the incidental learning TBLT provides is the most efficient way to learn an L2.

“Students may be unconvinced that the incidental learning that TBLT caters to is the most efficient way of learning an L2.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Van den Branden's (2006) account of implementing TBLT in Flanders provides an excellent model of successful introduction.

“An excellent model of how TBLT can be successfully introduced can be found in Van den Branden's (2006) account of its implementation in Flanders (Belgium).”

• cites Van den Branden's (2006)Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

It is unreasonable to expect beginner learners to do speaking tasks in groups because they lack proficiency and will use L1 or produce restricted, pidgin-like output.

“As I mentioned above, it is not reasonable to expect beginner-level learners to perform speaking tasks in groups as they lack the necessary proficiency and thus will resort to their L1 or else produce the kind of restricted, pidgin-like output that Seedhouse (1999) was critical of.”

• cites Seedhouse (1999)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A common misconception about TBLT is that it must involve small group work.

“A common misconception about TBLT is that it must involve small group work.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The benefits of small group work are well documented.

“The advantages of small group work are well-documentedsee, for example, Long and Porter (1985).”

• cites Long and Porter (1985)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The primed repetition in McDonough and Mackey (2006) could be considered closer to an immediate than a delayed response.

“However, it could be argued that the 'primed repetition' in this study was closer to an immediate than a delayed response.”

• cites McDonough and Mackey (2006) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In TBLT the accuracy-fluency distinction does not apply because the aim is to develop both together.

“In TBLT, however, the distinction between accuracy and fluency work does not apply as the goal is to develop accuracy and fluency contiguously.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

There is tension in TBLT between the claim that tasks promote effective learning and the actual demonstration that what is learned transfers to a new task.

“There is a tension in TBLT circles between the emphasis on how tasks can promote and effective learning and the actual demonstration of this in terms of the transferability of whatever is learned to a new task.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

A needs-analysis approach is not feasible in contexts such as the state educational systems in East Asia that the author knows.

“I have argued such an approach is not feasible in contexts such as the state educational systems in East Asia that I am familiar with.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The author has argued for a hybrid syllabus with a main task-based component supported by a task-supported component to address persistent linguistic problems when they appear.

“It is for this reason that I have argued for a hybrid syllabus consisting primarily of a task-based component but supported by a task-supported component to address recalcitrant linguistic problems when these become evident.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The final real issue is how to design courses that are task-based but also include opportunities to work on specific linguistic problems through task-supported teaching.

“To my mind, then, the final 'real issue' that has to be addressed is how to design courses that are task-based but that also build in, where needed, opportunities for working on specific linguistic problems through task-supported teaching.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Critics of TBLT are unlikely to be convinced until there are more studies like Shintani (2016), which provided evidence that TBLT can be more effective than traditional structural teaching.

“Critics of TBLT are unlikely to be convinced until there are more studies like Shintani (2016), who produced evidence that TBLT can be more effective than traditional, structural teaching.”

• cites Shintani (2016) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Long's version of TBLT stresses needs-analysis to identify target tasks relevant to a specific learner group.

“Whereas Long's version of TBLT emphasizes the importance of needs-analysis to identify the target tasks relevant to a specific group of learners”

• cites LongNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Successful L2 acquisition requires incidental learning through task-based teaching but can also benefit from the skill development that task-supported teaching offers.

“Successful L2 acquisition clearly does call for learning incidentally through task-based teaching but it can also benefit from the skill-development that task-supported teaching can provide.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Doubts about TBLT will continue until it is shown to be effective not only in communicative ability but also in linguistic accuracy.

“Doubts will also continue to exist until it can be shown that TBLT is effectivenot just in developing communicative ability but also in achieving linguistic accuracy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

These misconceptions partly result from the kind of research on tasks, which is often laboratory-based and often focuses on single task performance.

“In part these are the product of the kind of research that has investigated tasksoften laboratory-based and often focusing on the performance of single tasks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

These misconceptions are likely to persist until there are more accounts of full task-based courses.

“These misconceptions are likely to prevail until there are more accounts of full task-based courses.”

May combine two claims.

Task-based and task-supported teaching rest on different psycholinguistic rationales, but this does not mean only one should be chosen.

“Task-based and task-supported teaching draw on different psycholinguistic rationalesas Long (2015) pointed outbut it does not follow that we should opt for just one of these.”

• cites Long (2015)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.