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Cited by 359EFL/ESL Teaching and LearningSecond Language Learning and TeachingSecond Language Acquisition and Learning

In Defense of Tasks and TBLT: Nonissues and Real Issues

Open access
Long, Michael H.·2016·Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
DOI 10.1017/s0267190515000057
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Abstract

ABSTRACT The first aim of this article, addressed in section 1, is to define what is meant, and not meant, by task and task-based language teaching (TBLT). The second is to summarize and evaluate 14 criticisms that have been made of both. Section 2 responds to five alleged problems with TBLT's psycholinguistic rationale, section 3 to six at the classroom level, and section 4 to three claimed problems with implementing TBLT in specific contexts. A few of the criticisms touch on important matters, but most, I will suggest, are nonissues . The third aim of the article is to identify some genuine problems in need of resolution— real issues —and briefly to illustrate research programs under way to address them.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1017/s0267190515000057

Cites

111 of 111 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

4 of 63 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    A large body of research (well over 60 studies) on recasts has shown that implicit negative feedback leads to substantial learning gains in grammar and vocabulary.

    “a large body of research-well over 60 studies-on recasts, another device for achieving incidental focus on form, has shown that the implicit negative feedback they provide leads to substantial learning gains in grammar and vocabulary”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Goo & Mackey, 2013 source

      The opening section says that more than 60 studies used the input-and-interaction approach, many finding positive associations between recasts and learning; it does not say that all 60-plus studies were on recasts or showed gains. “The Case for Recasts” reports large mean effect sizes and examples of grammatical learning, and “What Are Recasts and Why Should We Study Them?” classifies recasts as implicit negative feedback. The passages found do not establish substantial vocabulary gains from recasts; vocabulary development appears only in a reference title (page numbers unavailable). (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Li, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mackey & Goo, 2007

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Premisecitation

    Many of the 80-plus studies included in two statistical meta-analyses (Goo et al., 2015; Norris & Ortega, 2000) involved new language for the learners concerned.

    “Many of the 80-plus studies included in two aforementioned statistical meta-analyses (Goo et al., 2015;Norris & Ortega, 2000), for example, involved new language for the learners concerned.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Goo et al., 2015 source
    • cites Norris & Ortega, 2000 source

      The passages indexed under this DOI are headed “Self-Monitoring and Self-Reflection in an English Blended Learning Environment,” not the named Norris and Ortega meta-analysis. Searches for the study count and for whether learners encountered new language returned no passage addressing either point, so this copy cannot verify the attribution. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisereasoning

    Focus on form is but one of the 10 MPs for implementing TBLT.

    “Focus on form (MP6) is but one of the 10 MPs for implementing TBLT by those already convinced by the rationale”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Evidence for the existence of developmental sequences is long-standing and robust.

    “Evidence for the existence of developmental sequences is long-standing and robust (for review, see Ortega, 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ortega, 2009 source
  • Premisecitation

    A second statistical meta-analysis (Goo et al., 2015) confirmed the earlier results.

    “Eleven of the original studies, plus 34 new ones reported in the following decade prompted a second statistical meta-analysis (Goo, Granena, Novella, & Yilmaz, 2015), which confirmed the earlier results.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Goo, Granena, Novella, & Yilmaz, 2015 source
  • May combine two claims. 35
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 29

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Noticing can be facilitative, especially in speeding up learning of perceptually nonsalient features or in establishing a new representation in longterm memory, after which subsequent examples of the same feature in the input can be parsed implicitly, but it is neither a necessary component nor a necessary result of focus on form.

    “Noticing can be facilitative, especially in speeding up learning of perceptually nonsalient features or in establishing a new representation in longterm memory, after which subsequent examples of the same feature in the input can be parsed implicitly (N.Ellis, 2005), but it is neither a necessary component nor a necessary result of focus on form.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites N. Ellis, 2005 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Norris and Ortega (2000) published a statistical meta-analysis of 49 studies of explicit and implicit instruction and focus on forms vs focus on form.

    “By 2000, five years before Swan's (2005) polemic first appeared, Norris and Ortega (2000) published a widely cited statistical meta-analysis of 49 studies of the relative effectiveness of explicit and implicit instruction and (a related but different issue) of focus on forms and focus on form.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Norris and Ortega, 2000 source

      The text indexed under this DOI appears to be a different document: its sections are headed “Self-Monitoring and Self-Reflection in an English Blended Learning Environment.” Searches for Norris and Ortega, 49 studies, explicit versus implicit instruction, and focus on form found no passage addressing the claimed meta-analysis. This copy therefore cannot verify the attribution. (LLM, conf=0.79)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Based on Bruton's miscellany of activities, skills, modalities, pedagogic procedures, language, conversational moves, and cognitive processes, it would be impossible to define task or task type or know what would and would not qualify as examples of either.

    “Based on such a miscellany of activities, skills, modalities, pedagogic procedures, language, conversational moves, and cognitive processes, it would be impossible to define task or task type or know what would and would not qualify as examples of either.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisereasoning

    Task and task-based language teaching (TBLT) mean different things to different people.

    “Task and task-based language teaching (TBLT) mean different things to different people.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    All tasks in the third sense (structure-trapping tasks) are components in the delivery of a traditional linguistic syllabus and are part of task-supported LT.

    “In other words, they are part of task-supported LT.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Skehan, 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Nowhere did Doughty suggest that learning from other sources or by alternative means cannot occur, or occur over a longer period than 40 seconds.

    “Nowhere did Doughty suggest that learning from other sources or by alternative means cannot occur, or occur over a longer period than 40 seconds.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Doughty, 2001 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Understanding is facilitative, but not required for learning.

    “Understanding is facilitative, but not required.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmidt, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Students play a decisive role in the language-learning process; their readiness to learn is not determined by the day of the week or the page in a textbook.

    “Students play a decisive role in the language-learning process; their readiness to learn is not determined by the day of the week or the page in a textbook.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Doughty claimed no such thing as that acquisition only takes place online during communication; nor is such a belief part of the psycholinguistic rationale for TBLT.

    “But Doughty claimed no such thing; nor is such a belief part of the psycholinguistic rationale for TBLT.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Doughty, 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Incidentally and/or implicitly learned L2 knowledge is more durable and tends to increase over time.

    “results to date suggest that incidentally and/or implicitly learned L2 knowledge is more durable and tends to increase over time”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Li, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Target tasks for different individuals or groups may differ greatly, which underscores the inadequacy of off-the-shelf commercial LT materials.

    “Target tasks for two or more individuals or groups of learners may obviously differ greatly, which underscores the inadequacy of off-the-shelf commercial LT materials”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Processability determines learnability, and learnability determines teachability.

    “In Pienemann's terms, processability determines learnability, and learnability determines teachability (Pienemann, 1984).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pienemann, 1984 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The value of explicit knowledge for language learning was irrelevant for the issue Doughty was discussing and Swan's charge is therefore a nonissue both there and where TBLT is concerned.

    “The value of explicit knowledge for language learning was irrelevant for the issue Doughty was discussing and Swan's charge is therefore a nonissue both there and where TBLT is concerned.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    If TBLT is discredited, the conclusion that traditional linguistically focused approaches and PPP are justified by default is a non sequitur.

    “If TBLT is discredited to an author's satisfaction, the conclusion drawn is often that traditional linguistically focused approaches and present-practice-produce (PPP) are justified by default-a non sequitur.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Doughty discussed a window of perhaps 40 seconds following production during which selective attention might utilize online implicit negative feedback for form-function mapping.

    “Doughty was discussing theory and research findings on working memory and short-term memory pertaining to the estimated period of perhaps 40 seconds following production during which speakers' (and by inference, L2 learners') selective attention span might be expected to be capable of utilizing online implicit negative feedback in the form of recasts for form-function mapping.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Doughty, 2001 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Focus on form works, and its gains in grammar and vocabulary are not statistically significantly smaller than those achieved by traditional focus on forms.

    “Focus on form works, and the gains it produces in the learning of grammar and vocabulary are not statistically significantly smaller than those achieved by traditional focus on forms, which Swan favors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Explicit procedures often do as well as, and sometimes slightly better than, incidental, online focus on form, but usually only with simple linguistic targets, only on immediate posttests, and only using discrete-point measures, and improvements achieved that way tend to deteriorate over time.

    “Results show that explicit procedures often do as well as, and sometimes slightly better than, incidental, online focus on form, but as noted above, usually only with simple linguistic targets, only on immediate posttests, and only using discrete-point measures, and that improvements achieved that way tend to deteriorate over time (Doughty, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Doughty, 2003 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Task-based assessment can be problematic and involve choices among less desirable options.

    “Task-based assessment can be problematic, however, and involve choices among less desirable options”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Doughty (2001) provided a review of the psycholinguistic underpinnings of focus on form.

    “Doughty (2001) provided a review of the psycholinguistic underpinnings of focus on form.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Doughty, 2001 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    There is no assumption in TBLT that conscious awareness is required for acquisition.

    “In fact, there is no assumption in TBLT that conscious awareness is required for acquisition”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PPP and the skill-builders' view is that language acquisition is teacher-driven, whereas TBLT views language acquisition as learner-driven.

    “As Skehan (2002, p. 294) noted, PPP and the skill-builders' view is that language acquisition is teacher-driven, whereas, with support from decades of SLA research, TBLT views language acquisition as learner-driven.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Skehan, 2002 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    What TBLT relies on is students' capacity for both incidental and intentional learning, and teachers and materials writers' use of both.

    “What TBLT relies on is students' capacity for both incidental and intentional learning, and teachers and materials writers' use of both.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Most lexical items and collocations are learned incidentally by adults, not just by children.

    “even most skeptics recognize that most lexical items and collocations are learned that way-by adults, not just by children”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The methodological principles (MPs) are motivated by SLA research and by principles from the philosophy of education.

    “The MPs are motivated by what second language acquisition (SLA) research has shown about how children and adults learn L2s successfully (Long, 2009(Long, , 2015, pp. 300-328) , pp. 300-328) and independently, by principles from the philosophy of education (Long, 2015, pp. 63-83).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Long, 2009 source
    • cites Long, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Operationalizing and demonstrating incidental (and implicit) language learning under laboratory conditions is notoriously difficult, and harder still in the wild.

    “Operationalizing and demonstrating incidental (and implicit) language learning under laboratory conditions is notoriously difficult, and harder still in the wild.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The gains from focus on form are achieved without the side effects of focus on forms, including irrelevance to student needs, accidental developmental appropriateness, exposure to non-native-like L2 models, little communicative practice, and monotony.

    “The gains are achieved, moreover, without the latter's side effects: among other problems, irrelevance to student needs, at best only accidental developmental appropriateness, exposure to non-native-like L2 models, little opportunity for michael h.long communicative practice, and in all too many classrooms, mind-numbing monotony.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The noticing hypothesis holds that learning requires attention and awareness, but not intention or understanding.

    “The noticing hypothesis holds that learning requires attention and awareness, but not intention or understanding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schmidt, 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Learners traverse developmental sequences, often producing utterances reflecting learner-created, non-target-like rules.

    “Instead, with occasional L1 influence on the duration of stages and/or the addition of substages, learners traverse developmental sequences, often producing utterances reflecting learner-created, non-target-like rules in the process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Linguistic items are dealt with in TBLT, and dealt with in a more scientifically defensible manner than by the traditional synthetic syllabus.

    “In sum, linguistic items are dealt with, and dealt with in a more scientifically defensible manner than by the traditional synthetic syllabus.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    There is no polarization of meaning-based and form-based instruction in the rationale for TBLT or in its implementation, and no exclusion of either form or meaning.

    “There is no such polarization in the rationale for TBLT or in its implementation, and no exclusion of either form or meaning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Much good work has been published on task complexity and on task syllabus design.

    “Much good work has been published on task complexity and on task syllabus design (see, e.g., Gilabert, Barón, & Levkina, 2011;Révész, Michel, & Gilabert, 2015;Robinson, 2009Robinson, , 2011;;Skehan, 2014), and more is under way.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gilabert, Barón, & Levkina, 2011 source
    • cites Révész, Michel, & Gilabert, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Robinson, 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Assessment of task-based abilities always involves use of task-based, criterion-referenced performance tests.

    “Views differ on the best way(s) to assess task-based abilities, although the process always involves use of task-based, criterion-referenced performance tests.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    TBLT courses have the additional crucial advantage that course content is relevant to learners' communicative needs.

    “Students in TBLT courses learn as much grammar and vocabulary, even at the beginners level, with instruction geared to learners' processing capacity, and with the additional crucial advantage that course content is relevant to their communicative needs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Most problems are dealt with reactively, usually by the teacher, but also by other students, and, if pedagogic tasks are designed cleverly enough, by corrective feedback loops in the tasks themselves.

    “Most problems are dealt with reactively, usually by the teacher, but also by other students, and, if pedagogic tasks are designed cleverly enough, by corrective feedback loops in the tasks themselves.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Almost all sequences of pedagogic tasks with which the author is familiar begin with input-based tasks, and many end there.

    “Almost all sequences of pedagogic tasks with which I in defense of tasks and tblt 21 am familiar begin with input-based tasks, and many end there.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Untrained teachers with poor command of the L2 can implement PPP but cannot implement TBLT.

    “Untrained teachers with poor command of the L2 can do PPP; they cannot do TBLT.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The overall yield of task complexity research has been disappointing, largely due to noncomparability of conflicting findings, mostly because researchers used a wide variety of tasks, task types, moderator variables, and outcome measures.

    “The overall yield has been disappointing, however, largely due to the noncomparability of what are sometimes conflicting findings, mostly the result of researchers having used a wide variety of tasks, task types, moderator variables, and outcome measures (Sasayama, Malicka, & Norris, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sasayama, Malicka, & Norris, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    TBLT devotes far more attention to lexis and to collocations-and to relevant lexis and collocations-than do the majority of commercial textbooks.

    “TBLT devotes far more attention to lexis and to collocations-and to relevant lexis and collocations, moreover-than do the majority of commercial textbooks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Swan's charge that evidence is lacking of successful long-term classroom implementation of TBLT had some merit in 2005, less so in 2011 and today in 2016.

    “Of the many charges Swan leveled, this one (2005, p. 379) had some merit in 2005, when his original article was published, although less so when it was reprinted in 2011 and today in 2016.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Swan, 2005 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    When unambiguous behavioral variables exist to indicate success or failure at task completion, assessment is fairly straightforward.

    “Things are fairly straightforward as long as unambiguous behavioral variables exist to indicate success or failure at task michael h.long completion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Most word frequency lists are based on corpora unconnected to the discourse domains relevant for particular groups or types of learners, especially advanced learners.

    “Unfortunately, most word frequency lists are based on corpora unconnected to the discourse domains relevant for particular groups or types of learners, especially advanced learners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    While many criticisms of tasks and TBLT are unwarranted, TBLT is not a panacea; several problems remain.

    “While many criticisms of tasks and TBLT are unwarranted-nonissues-this is emphatically not to say that TBLT is a panacea.Several problems remain-real issues.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    So-called unfocused pedagogic tasks in genuine TBLT are not designed to teach particular grammatical structures, but that does not mean that grammar is not taught.

    “It is true that so-called unfocused pedagogic tasks in genuine TBLT are not designed to teach particular grammatical structures, but that certainly does not mean that grammar (or any other linguistic subsystem) is not taught.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In 38% of cases, non-target-like hypotheses were replaced by L2-conforming representations and integrated into the learners' interlanguage grammars, with the majority of such changes traceable to learning opportunities arising from task-based interactions.

    “in 38% of cases, non-target-like hypotheses were replaced by L2-conforming representations and integrated into the learners' interlanguage grammars, as reflected in the medium-term posttest, with the majority of such changes traceable to learning opportunities arising from the task-based interactions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eckerth, 2008 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    A lot of grammar is learned from positive evidence, that is, from repeated exposure to instances of target grammatical features and their authentic uses encountered primarily in task-based materials.

    “A lot of grammar is learned from positive evidence, that is, from repeated exposure to instances of target grammatical features and their authentic uses encountered primarily in task-based materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Advanced learners have usually mastered most of the grammar they need, but typically still lack the vocabulary and collocations required to operate effectively in the specialized discourse domains that usually motivated their need for advanced L2 abilities.

    “Advanced learners, especially, have usually mastered most of the grammar they need, but typically still lack the vocabulary and collocations required to operate effectively in the specialized discourse domains (academic, occupational, vocational, etc.) that usually motivated their need for advanced L2 abilities in the first place.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    TBLT adoption requires expertise on the part of course designers and classroom teachers, and a considerable investment of time and effort if it is to be successful.

    “TBLT is still a relatively recent innovation-one whose adoption requires expertise on the part of course designers and classroom teachers, and a considerable investment of time and effort if it is to be successful.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: TBLT is still a relatively recent innovation.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Programs for refugees and migrant workers would be very well served by TBLT, but often lack adequate staffing, funding, and other resources, and so require the assistance of volunteers.

    “Programs for refugees and migrant workers would be very well served by TBLT, too, but often lack adequate staffing, funding, and other resources, and so require the assistance of volunteers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Many criticisms of TBLT lack merit, but some raise important matters.

    “Many criticisms of TBLT lack merit, but some raise important matters.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The Belgian experience has highlighted the importance of adequate in-service (re-)training and continued teacher support.

    “The Belgian experience, in particular (see Van den Branden, 2006b), has highlighted the importance of adequate in-service (re-)training and continued teacher support.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Van den Branden, 2006b

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Real issues remain for TBLT.

    “Real issues remain.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    TBLT success will be more likely in programs housed in institutions with a stable, qualified, and experienced teaching staff and a relatively stable student population, located in societies where language learning is a serious matter and recognized and supported as such.

    “Success will be more likely in programs housed in institutions with a stable, qualified, and experienced teaching staff and a relatively stable student population (thereby making an NA and materials development worth the effort), located in societies where language learning is a serious matter and recognized and supported as such.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
52 of 52

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Washback from grammar-based final exams in many foreign language programs for high school students, especially centralized state-controlled systems, exerts a huge influence on what is taught and how.

    “In my view, a more serious problem (for any communicative LT, not just TBLT) in many foreign language programs for high school students, especially those that form part of centralized, state-controlled education systems, is washback from what is often a grammar-based final exam that both teachers and students know lies in wait at the end of the year.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In some countries, the state-mandated final exam lacks validity for language assessment.

    “In some countries, the exam looks more like an IQ test and lacks validity for language assessment, but it can have serious implications for university entrance, so tends to exert a huge influence on what is taught and how.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Over 300 studies on task complexity have been published in journal articles to date.

    “The research effort has been intense, with over 300 studies to date in journal articles alone.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    TBLT brings increased student motivation, as reported by teachers.

    “This can be offset by the increased student motivation teachers report that TBLT brings, but it is a real issue, nonetheless.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Increasing numbers of school systems, universities, and government language programs in many countries meet the requirements for TBLT success.

    “Increasing numbers of school systems, universities, and government language programs in many countries meet those requirements.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Inadequate instructional time and lack of L2 exposure outside the classroom are real problems for all kinds of language teaching, not just TBLT and not just in foreign language settings.

    “Inadequate instructional time and lack of L2 exposure outside the classroom are real problems for all kinds of LT, not just TBLT, and not just in foreign language settings.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    TBLT is still a relatively recent innovation.

    “TBLT is still a relatively recent innovation-one whose adoption requires expertise on the part of course designers and classroom teachers, and a considerable investment of time and effort if it is to be successful.”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Long questioned whether metalinguistic knowledge gained at one time can be used by the learner at another time, as Swan claimed.

    “but he also questioned whether metalinguistic knowledge acquired at one time can be used by the learner at another timeas Swan claimed can happen.”

    From Position paper: Moving task-based language teaching forward (2017) · cites this paper as Long (2016)

    In §2.3, Long says it would be “patently absurd” to suppose that metalinguistic knowledge provided at Time 1 could never be used at Time 2. He questions the long-term benefit in Swan’s example and says such knowledge is usually of limited value, but does not question whether later use is possible. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Many objections raised by Sheen and Swan against TBLT are invalid because they misunderstand TBLT and ignore relevant research.

    “However, many of the points raised by Sheen and Swan are invalid, displaying a misunderstanding of what TBLT is and an ignorance of the relevant research -see Ellis (2009) and Long (2016) for refutations of their objections.”

    From Towards a modular language curriculum for using tasks (2019) · cites this paper as Long (2016)

    In sections 2.1 and 3.5 (pages unavailable), Long argues that Swan discounts empirical research and mischaracterizes TBLT, calling one objection a straw man. These passages support the claim about Swan, but the passages found do not address Sheen's objections, so Long alone does not support that part of the attribution. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • The critiques directed at TBLT rest on misunderstandings, concern non-issues, and have already been adequately answered in prior work.

    “The critiques levelled at TBLT are based on “misunderstandings” about TBLT and concern “non-issues” and have already been adequately addressed (see Ellis, 2009;Long, 2016).”

    From Position paper: Moving task-based language teaching forward (2017) · cites this paper as Long, 2016

    The Abstract says most of the 14 criticisms are nonissues, and section 3.1 calls one criticism a misunderstanding. But the Abstract and Conclusion also acknowledge that some criticisms raise important matters, and the passages do not establish that the critiques had already been adequately answered in prior work. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Long (2016) produced his own list of real issues, covering only items 3, 9 and 10 of the author's Table 1, based on his particular conception of TBLT.

    “Long (2016), in an issue of the Annual Review of Applied Linguistics devoted to TBLT, produced his own list of 'real issues' (only #3, 9 and 10 in Table 1) based on his particular view of what constitutes TBLT .”

    From Position paper: Moving task-based language teaching forward (2017) · cites this paper as Long (2016)

    Section 5, “Tasks and TBLT: Some Real Issues,” says Long will mention three real issues, and the paper defines the conception of TBLT he uses. Our copy cannot establish whether those issues correspond only to items 3, 9 and 10 of the citing author's Table 1. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Long stressed that focus on form must be reactive.

    “What Long emphasized is that focus on form must be reactive.”

    From Position paper: Moving task-based language teaching forward (2017) · cites this paper as Long (2016)

    Section 2.1 describes focus on form in TBLT as reactive and often triggered by task work. But it does not say it must always be reactive; section 2.5 also allows teachers or task designers to deliberately direct attention to language during meaning-focused use. The claim turns a description into an absolute requirement. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Ellis quotation cites a page outside its listed range

    Minor

    The text attributes a quotation to page 160 of Ellis (1997), but the corresponding reference lists that work on pages 221-246.

  • The same Ellis article has two publication years

    Minor

    The reference list gives the same article, journal volume, issue, and page range under both 1997 and 2009. Those entries cannot both have the correct publication year.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. Sasayama S. , Malicka A. , & Norris J. M. (2015, September 16–18). Primary challenges in cognitive task complexity research: Results of a comprehensive research synthesis. Paper presented at the colloquium, An International Collaborative Research Network (CRN) on Task Complexity, at the Sixth International Conference on Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), Katolieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.
  2. Long, 1996, Handbook of second language acquisition, 413
  3. Newton J. (2015, November 30). Teachers, tasks and textbooks. Plenary address, AALA conference, Adelaide, Australia.
  4. Schmidt, 2010, Proceedings of CLaSIC 2010, 721
  5. Long, 2007, Problems in SLA, 139
  6. 10.1111/j.1473-4192.2009.00231.x · DOI · Paper page
  7. Johnston, 1985, Syntactic and morphological progressions in learner English
  8. Johnston, 1997, Development and variation in learner language (Unpublished doctoral dissertation)
  9. Nielson, 2009, Prototype implementation of an online Chinese course: An analysis of course implementation and learner performance
  10. Long, 1985, Modeling and assessing second language development, 77
  11. Wilkins, 1994, Language, language acquisition and syllabus design: Some recent issues, English Teaching (Korea), 49, 41
  12. Nielson K. (2015, September 16–18). Evaluating the impact of online practice on real-world task performance of second language learners. Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference on Task-Based Language Teaching, Katolieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Long, M. H.
Affiliations
University of Maryland, College Park (US)
Corresponding author
Long, Michael H.
ORCID
Long, Michael H.
Venue
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
Publisher
Cambridge University Press (CUP)
Published
2016-03
Volume
36
Pages
5-33
ISSN
  • 0267-1905 (ISSN-L)
  • 1471-6356
DOI
10.1017/s0267190515000057
OpenAlex
W2324748824
Cited by
359
References
108
Citations by year
2026: 25 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 47 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 1
FWCI
134.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
www.cambridge.org/core/terms (unspecified, 29 d)
Locations
Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Second Language Learning and Teaching
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Second Language Acquisition and Learning
Keywords
task-based language teaching, task-based language learning, classroom implementation, language teaching, second language acquisition

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-11.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-11.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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