Ability Profiles in Children with Autism: Influence of Age and IQ
Abstract
To understand the effect of IQ and age on ability in children with autism, psychological data were analyzed for 164 3- to 15-year-olds with autism (IQs 14-143). As age increased, so did IQ, which probably reflects both an actual increase in IQ over time and the likelihood that brighter children are diagnosed later. Early in life, 67 percent had normal motor and delayed speech milestones. Verbal IQ continued to lag behind non-verbal IQ during the preschool years. By school age, the gap between verbal and non-verbal IQs had closed. Visual reasoning exceeded graphomotor scores for all children, and surpassed IQ for most. Graphomotor scores were significantly below IQ for both high-IQ groups. For school-age children with low IQs, math, spelling, and writing scores were consistent with IQ and reading was above IQ. School-age children with high IQs had average reading, math, and spelling scores and a weakness in writing.
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A substantial verbal-nonverbal IQ gap is common in ASD, occurring in more than 40% of cases.
“Similarly, an uneven cognitive profile with a significant discrepancy between verbal and nonverbal IQ (VIQ and NVIQ), or an IQ split, is frequent in ASD, present in over 40% of affected individuals 24,25.”
From Parsing Heterogeneity in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Visual Scanning of Dynamic Social Scenes in School-Aged Children (2012) · cites this paper as [25]
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“... studies have suggested children and adolescents with AS and high functioning ASD have delays or disorders in overall motor development, including locomotor and object control (Berkeley et al. 2001), manual dexterity, ball skills, and balance (Manjiviona and Prior 1995), bimanual load-lifting differences (Schmitz e…”
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“Dickerson Mayes and Calhoun (2003a, 2008) report that 23% of the students with HFA/AS meet criteria for a mathematics learning disability.”
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Foley‐Nicpon, M., Assouline, S. G., & Stinson, R. D. (2012) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0016986211433199 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
“…many conclusions from previous studies and support that cognitively gifted students can be diagnosed with both HFA and AS (see Mayes et al., 2001; Mayes & Calhoun, 2003c; Miller & Ozonoff, 2000); to ignore this does this group of students a disservice with respect to understanding their unique…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialImpact of Setting and Instructional Context for Adolescents With Autism
Kurth, J. A., & Mastergeorge, A. M. (2010) · The Journal of Special Education · doi:10.1177/0022466910366480 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“…extent, writing skills development (Bedrosian, Lasker, Speidel, & Politsch, 2003; Blischak & Schlosser, 2003; Schlosser & Blischak, 2004) and math development (Banda, McAfee, Lee, & Kubina, 2007; Mayes & Calhoun, 2003; Minshew, Goldstein, Taylor, & Siegel, 1994) have received research attention.”
Payakachat, N., Tilford, J. M., Kovacs, E. A., & Kuhlthau, K. A. (2012) · Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research · doi:10.1586/erp.12.29 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Preschool predictors of school-age academic achievement in autism spectrum disorder
Miller, L. E., Burke, J. D., Troyb, E., Knoch, K., Herlihy, L. E., & FEIN, D. A. (2016) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2016.1225665 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Even within more homogenous subgroups (e.g., highfunctioning autism (HFA), AS), achievement profiles are quite variable, with individuals’ scores ranging from impaired to above average across subtests (Griswold et al., 2002; Mayes & Calhoun, 2003b).”
BackgroundInfluentialInfluence of IQ and Age in Childhood Autism: Lack of Support for DSM-IV Asperger's Disorder
Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L. (2004) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1023/b:jodd.0000032301.07550.0e · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“The finding that children who have fewer autistic symptoms and social problems are brighter, older, and more advanced in mental age is consistent with previous research (Bartak and Rutter, 1976; Church and Coplan, 1995; Eaves et al., 1994; Gillberg et al., 1996; Mayes and Calhoun, 1999, 2003; Miller and Ozonoff, 2000;…”
BackgroundResultDevelopmental Change in Neutral Processing of Words by Children with Autism
Dunn, M. A., & Bates, J. C. (2005) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-005-3304-3 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Childhood and current autistic features in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder
Esterberg, M. L., Trotman, H. D., Brasfield, J. L., Compton, M. T., & Walker, E. F. (2008) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2008.04.029 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“, 2001), cognitive deficits (Mayes and Calhoun, 2003; Walker and Walder, 2003), communication impairments (Bagner et al.”
Whalon, K. J., & Hanline, M. F. (2008) · Education and training in developmental disabilities · doi:10.1177/215416470804300309 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Despite variability in reading ability, studies have consistently shown that students with ASD frequently have difficulty comprehending text (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003a; 2003b; Nation et al.; Minshew et al.; Wahlberg & Magliano, 2004).”
Fiorello, C. A., Hale, J. B., Holdnack, J. A., Kavanagh, J. A., Terrell, J., & Long, L. (2007) · Applied Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09084280701280338 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“Diagnostic sensitivity and specificity can be achieved by examination of Index and= or subtest profiles for children with neurobiological disorders such as autism, LD, and ADHD (e.g., Mayes & Calhoun, 2003 ), but this information is lost if one focuses solely on global IQ scores.”
BackgroundKhowaja, K., & Salim, S. S. (2013) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2013.05.009 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Exploring the persuasive writing skills of students with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder
Brown, H. M., Johnson, A. M., Smyth, R. E., & Cardy, J. O. (2014) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2014.07.017 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“…(c.f., Foley-Nicpon, Assouline and Stinson, 2012; Griswold, Barnhill, Smith-Myles, Hagiwara & Simpson, 2002; PERSUASIVE WRITING OF STUDENTS WITH HFASD 7 Jones, 2007; Mayes & Calhoun 2003; 2008; Smith-Myles, Huggins, Rome-Lake, Hagiwara, Barnhill, et al., 2003; Smith-Myles, Simpson & Becker, 1994).”
BackgroundResultMayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Murray, M. J., Morrow, J. D., Yurich, K. K. L., Cothren, S., Purichia, H., Mahr, F., Bouder, J. N., & Petersen, C. A. (2011) · Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/1088357611406902 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“We found somewhat lower parent than clinician CARS scores for children with LFA and HFA and lower classification accuracy for parent scores (72”
MethodInfluentialZajic, M. C., McIntyre, N. S., Lerro, L., Novotny, S. E., Oswald, T. M., & Mundy, P. C. (2016) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361316675121 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Previous research has shown that children with HFASD produce shorter, less complex texts compared to TD peers (Chavkin, 2008; Church et al., 2000; Griswold et al., 2002; Mayes and Calhoun, 2003a, 2003b, 2006, 2008; Myles et al., 2003).”
John, T. S., Dawson, G., & Estes, A. M. (2017) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3296-9 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“2011; Mayes and Calhoun 2003).”
Whalon, K. J., & Hart, J. E. (2010) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/0741932510362174 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“…emerging literature base on the reading development of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has described a number of children who effectively decode but struggle with language and reading comprehension (Calhoon, 2001; Mayes & Calhoun 2003a, 2003b; Nation, Clarke, Wright, & Williams, 2006).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCourchesne, V., Girard, D., Jacques, C., & Soulières, I. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3786-4 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Review of Evidence-based Mathematics Interventions for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Barnett, J. E. H., & Cleary, S. (2015) · Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/215416471505000205 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Cognitive Differences in Pictorial Reasoning Between High-Functioning Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome
Sahyoun, C. P., Soulières, I., Belliveau, J. W., Mottron, L., & Mody, M. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0712-9 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“In fact, differences in verbal and non-verbal IQ scores have been frequently reported in ASD (Klin et al. 1995; Koyama et al. 2007; Mayes and Calhoun 2003 ), and the direction and magnitude of these differences may be associated with autism subtypes (Tager-Flusberg and Joseph 2003).”
Doobay, A. F., Foley-Nicpon, M., Ali, S. R., & Assouline, S. G. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2082-1 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
High Prevalence of Dysgraphia in Elementary Through High School Students With ADHD and Autism
Mayes, S., Breaux, R., Calhoun, S., & Frye, S. (2019) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054717720721 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Whitby, P. J. S. (2012) · Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/1088357612468764 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Twenty-three percent of students with ASD have a mathematics learning disability (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003a) compared with 5% to 8% of school-age children (Greary, 2004).”
BackgroundLeiter-3: Nonverbal Cognitive and Neuropsychological Assessment
Roid, G. H., & Koch, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50604-3_8 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Autism Spectrum Disorder and IQ – A Complex Interplay
Wolff, N., Stroth, S., Kamp‐Becker, I., Roepke, S., & Roessner, V. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.856084 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Dimian, A. F., Symons, F. J., & Wolff, J. J. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04586-1 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Working Memory in Early-School-Age Children with Asperger’s Syndrome
Cui, J., Gao, D., Chen, Y., Zou, X., & Wang, Y. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0943-9 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Genome-scan for IQ discrepancy in autism: evidence for loci on chromosomes 10 and 16
Chapman, N. H., Estes, A., Munson, J., Bernier, R., Webb, S. J., Rothstein, J. H., Minshew, N. J., Dawson, G., Schellenberg, G. D., & Wijsman, E. M. (2011) · Human Genetics · doi:10.1007/s00439-010-0899-z · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…IQ is generally lower than performance IQ (Lincoln et al. 1998), a pattern frequently found in a recent study of over 450 preschoolers with autism (Munson et al. 2008), although not universally observed (e.g. Mayes and Calhoun 2003; Minshew et al. 2005; Siegel et al. 1996; Szatmari et al. 1990).”
Zajic, M. C., & Wilson, S. E. (2019) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101471 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Memory, language and intellectual ability in low-functioning autism
Boucher, J., Mayes, A. R., & Bigham, S. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511490101.016 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…intellectual disability in LFA owes more to a decline in verbal intelligence than a decline in nonverbal intelligence (see for example Rumsey, 1992; Lincoln, Allen & Kilman, 1995; Siegel, Minshew & Goldstein, 1996; Lord & Paul, 1997; however, see Mayes & Calhoun, 2003b for some contrary evidence).”
BackgroundStability and change of IQ scores in preschool children diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorder
Dietz, C., Willemsen‐Swinkels, S. H. N., Buitelaar, J. K., van Daalen, E., & van Engeland, H. (2007) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-007-0614-3 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Increase in IQ scores in children with ASD has been reported in other studies of preschool children [7, 32], and children between preschool years and early adolescence [19, 28].”
Beery VMI performance in autism spectrum disorder
Green, R. R., Bigler, E. D., Froehlich, A. L., Prigge, M. B. D., Travers, B. G., Cariello, A. N., Anderson, J. S., Zielinski, B. A., Alexander, A. L., LANGE, N. D., et al. (2015) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1056131 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Reinvall et al. (2013) found deficits in ASD in Visuomotor Precision and Design Copying on the Finnish version of the NEPSY-II, while Mayes and Calhoun (2003, 2007) obtained similar findings using the DTVMI.”
ResultHow common are motor problems in children with a developmental disorder: rule or exception?
Pieters, S., Block, K. D., Scheiris, J., Eyssen, M., Desoete, A., Deboutte, D., Waelvelde, H. V., & Roeyers, H. (2011) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2011.01225.x · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“The range of co-morbid motor problems in PDD in small clinical sample studies is large, from 50% to 85% (Manjiviona and Prior 1995, Mayes and Calhoun 2003, Miyahara et al. 1997).”
BackgroundWhalon, K., Delano, M. E., & Hanline, M. (2013) · Preventing School Failure Alternative Education for Children and Youth · doi:10.1080/1045988x.2012.672347 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Most children with ASD experience difficulty with reading, and given their difficulties with language, struggle especially in the area of reading comprehension (Leekam, 2007; Mayes & Calhoun 2003a, 2003b; Nation, Clarke, Wright, & Williams, 2006; Wahlberg & Magliano, 2004).”
BackgroundPredicting literacy in children with a high-functioning autism spectrum disorder
Jacobs, D., & Richdale, A. L. (2013) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.04.007 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“FSIQ has previously been identified as predictive of decoding and reading comprehension for the HFASD population (Mayes & Calhoun, 2008) with a higher FSIQ associated with higher decoding ability in individuals with an ASD (Howlin, Goode, Hutton, & Rutter, 2004; Mayes & Calhoun, 2003).”
Differences in verbal and nonverbal IQ test scores in children with autism spectrum disorder
Grondhuis, S. N., Lecavalier, L., Arnold, L. E., Handen, B. L., Scahill, L. D., McDougle, C. J., & Aman, M. G. (2018) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2018.02.001 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“This was demonstrated in a report by Coolican et al. (2008) that children with ASD had weaker verbal performance compared to nonverbal sections on the SB5 (2012), and by findings of other researchers (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003) using different intelligence assessments.”
ResultGillespie-Lynch, K., Hotez, E., Zajic, M., Riccio, A., DeNigris, D., Kofner, B., Bublitz, D., Gaggi, N. L., & Luca, K. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320929453 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“These patterns mirror variations in IQ, aligning with evidence that written expression and IQ are often associated among autistic youth (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003b, 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialRosenblum, S., Amit-Ben-Simhon, H., & Gal, E. (2015) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2015.11.004 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Autism Spectrum Disorders: Phenotype and Diagnosis
(2006) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781420004205-6 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Zaidman‐Zait, A., Mirenda, P., Szatmári, P., Duku, E., Smith, I. M., Zwaigenbaum, L., Vaillancourt, T., Kerns, C. M., Volden, J., Waddell, C., et al. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2020.1750021 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Couteur, A. S. L., & Szatmári, P. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118381953.ch51 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Numerical Estimation in Children With Autism
Aagten‐Murphy, D., Attucci, C., Daniel, N., Klaric, E., Burr, D. C., & Pellicano, E. (2015) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1482 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Yet between 6% (Jones et al., 2009) and 22% (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003a) of children and adolescents with autism were reported to struggle with calculation and mental arithmetic to an extent that their maths difficulties were incommensurate with intellectual functioning, indicative of a specific…”
Social skills characteristics of students with autism spectrum disorder
Syriopoulou–Delli, C. K., Agaliotis, I., & Papaefstathiou, E. (2016) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2016.1219101 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Williams Syndrome, Human Self-Domestication, and Language Evolution
Niego, A., & Benítez‐Burraco, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00521 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Khowaja, K., Salim, S. S., Asemi, A., Ghulamani, S., & Shah, A. (2019) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-019-00646-1 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“It consists of two different components: decoding and language comprehension [56, 115, 124, 128, 148].”
BackgroundOromotor skills in autism spectrum disorder: A scoping review
Maffei, M. F., Chenausky, K. V., Gill, S. V., Tager-Flusberg, H. B., & Green, J. R. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2923 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“This heterogeneity has been observed in domains such as language (Rapin, 2006; Tager-Flusberg, 2006) and IQ (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003), as well at the levels of genetics (Szatmari, 1999) and neuroimaging (Martinez-Murcia et al., 2017).”
BackgroundUsing IQ Discrepancy Scores To Examine the Neural Correlates of Specific Cognitive Abilities
Margolis, A. E., Bansal, R., Hao, X., Algermissen, M., Erickson, C., Klahr, K., Naglieri, J. A., & Peterson, B. S. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0775-13.2013 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Evaluating motor cortical oscillations and age-related change in autism spectrum disorder
Gaetz, W. C., Rhodes, E., Bloy, L., Blaskey, L. G., Jackel, C. R., Brodkin, E. S., Waldman, A. T., Embick, D., Hall, S., & Roberts, T. P. L. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116349 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“With respect for divided opinions, we use both approaches to terminology in this paper. impaired in children with ASD [4, 22-24].”
Indicators of Intellectual Disabilities in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Rivard, M., Terroux, A., Mercier, C., & Parent-Boursier, C. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2198-3 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Arciuli, J., Stevens, K., Trembath, D. L., & Simpson, I. C. (2013) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2013/12-0034 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Southon, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.958013 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Research has often associated academic achievement with IQ (Watson and Monroe, 1990; Mayes and Calhoun, 2003; Mayes et al., 2009).”
BackgroundUntrivial Pursuit: Measuring Motor Procedures Learning in Children with Autism
Sparaci, L., Formica, D., Lasorsa, F. R., Mazzone, L., Valeri, G., & Vicari, S. (2015) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1455 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Mayes, S. D., Frye, S. S., Breaux, R., & Calhoun, S. L. (2018) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-018-9598-9 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Iuculano, T., Padmanabhan, A., Chen, L., Nicholas, J., Mitsven, S. G., Angeles, C. D. L., & Menon, V. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100754 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“, 1994) and underachievement (Chiang and Lin, 2007; Estes et al., 2011; Mayes and Calhoun, 2003) have been reported in the extant literature.”
BackgroundHaq, I., & Couteur, A. S. L. (2004) · Medicine · doi:10.1383/medc.32.8.61.43165 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Developmental milestones in early childhood and genetic liability to neurodevelopmental disorders
Hannigan, L. J., Askeland, R. B., Ask, H., Tesli, M., Corfield, E. C., Ayorech, Z., Magnus, P. M., Njølstad, P. R., Øyen, A., Stoltenberg, C., et al. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721003330 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Children ’ s timely attainment of developmental milestones is an important indicator of the extent to which early neurodevelopment is progressing typically (Bishop, Thurm, Farmer, & Lord, 2016; Johnson, Gliga, Jones, & Charman, 2015; Mayes & Calhoun, 2003).”
Neuropsychology of Child Psychopathology
Tramontana, M. G., Hooper, S. R., Watts‐English, T., Ellison, T., & Bethea, T. C. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78867-8_5 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The Behavioral Manifestations of Autism Spectrum Disorders
Kim, S. H., & Lord, C. (2013) · The Neuroscience of Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-391924-3.00002-8 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L.
- Affiliations
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Venue
- Autism
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2003-03
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 65-80
- ISSN
- 1362-3613 (ISSN-L)
- 1461-7005
- OpenAlex
- W2059046774
- Cited by
- 247
- References
- 45
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 1.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Autism (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Keywords
- ability profiles, IQ, age effects, verbal IQ, non-verbal IQ, motor development, speech development, visual reasoning, graphomotor skills, academic performance, reading, writing, spelling, MATH
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Age Factors, Autistic Disorder, Child, Child, Preschool, Cognition Disorders, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motor Skills, Reading, Speech Disorders, Writing
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