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Ability Profiles in Children with Autism: Influence of Age and IQ

Mayes, Susan Dickerson, Calhoun, Susan L.·2003·Autism

DOI 10.1177/1362361303007001006

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Abstract

To understand the effect of IQ and age on ability in children with autism, psychological data were analyzed for 164 3- to 15-year-olds with autism (IQs 14-143). As age increased, so did IQ, which probably reflects both an actual increase in IQ over time and the likelihood that brighter children are diagnosed later. Early in life, 67 percent had normal motor and delayed speech milestones. Verbal IQ continued to lag behind non-verbal IQ during the preschool years. By school age, the gap between verbal and non-verbal IQs had closed. Visual reasoning exceeded graphomotor scores for all children, and surpassed IQ for most. Graphomotor scores were significantly below IQ for both high-IQ groups. For school-age children with low IQs, math, spelling, and writing scores were consistent with IQ and reading was above IQ. School-age children with high IQs had average reading, math, and spelling scores and a weakness in writing.

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BackgroundResultInfluential
Assessing intelligence at autism diagnosis: mission impossible? Testability and cognitive profile of autistic preschoolers
Courchesne, V., Girard, D., Jacques, C., & Soulières, I. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3786-4 · Cited by 74
Review of Evidence-based Mathematics Interventions for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Barnett, J. E. H., & Cleary, S. (2015) · Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/215416471505000205 · Cited by 63
Cognitive Differences in Pictorial Reasoning Between High-Functioning Autism and Asperger’s Syndrome
Sahyoun, C. P., Soulières, I., Belliveau, J. W., Mottron, L., & Mody, M. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0712-9 · Cited by 69
“In fact, differences in verbal and non-verbal IQ scores have been frequently reported in ASD (Klin et al. 1995; Koyama et al. 2007; Mayes and Calhoun 2003 ), and the direction and magnitude of these differences may be associated with autism subtypes (Tager-Flusberg and Joseph 2003).”
Cognitive, Adaptive, and Psychosocial Differences Between High Ability Youth With and Without Autism Spectrum Disorder
Doobay, A. F., Foley-Nicpon, M., Ali, S. R., & Assouline, S. G. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2082-1 · Cited by 62
High Prevalence of Dysgraphia in Elementary Through High School Students With ADHD and Autism
Mayes, S., Breaux, R., Calhoun, S., & Frye, S. (2019) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054717720721 · Cited by 46
The Effects of Solve It! on the Mathematical Word Problem Solving Ability of Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorders
Whitby, P. J. S. (2012) · Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/1088357612468764 · Cited by 62
“Twenty-three percent of students with ASD have a mathematics learning disability (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003a) compared with 5% to 8% of school-age children (Greary, 2004).”
Background
Leiter-3: Nonverbal Cognitive and Neuropsychological Assessment
Roid, G. H., & Koch, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-50604-3_8 · Cited by 65
Autism Spectrum Disorder and IQ – A Complex Interplay
Wolff, N., Stroth, S., Kamp‐Becker, I., Roepke, S., & Roessner, V. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.856084 · Cited by 78
Delay to Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention and Educational Outcomes for a Medicaid-Enrolled Cohort of Children with Autism
Dimian, A. F., Symons, F. J., & Wolff, J. J. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04586-1 · Cited by 62
Working Memory in Early-School-Age Children with Asperger’s Syndrome
Cui, J., Gao, D., Chen, Y., Zou, X., & Wang, Y. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0943-9 · Cited by 59
Genome-scan for IQ discrepancy in autism: evidence for loci on chromosomes 10 and 16
Chapman, N. H., Estes, A., Munson, J., Bernier, R., Webb, S. J., Rothstein, J. H., Minshew, N. J., Dawson, G., Schellenberg, G. D., & Wijsman, E. M. (2011) · Human Genetics · doi:10.1007/s00439-010-0899-z · Cited by 55
“…IQ is generally lower than performance IQ (Lincoln et al. 1998), a pattern frequently found in a recent study of over 450 preschoolers with autism (Munson et al. 2008), although not universally observed (e.g. Mayes and Calhoun 2003; Minshew et al. 2005; Siegel et al. 1996; Szatmari et al. 1990).”
Writing research involving children with autism spectrum disorder without a co-occurring intellectual disability: A systematic review using a language domains and mediational systems framework
Zajic, M. C., & Wilson, S. E. (2019) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.101471 · Cited by 55
Memory, language and intellectual ability in low-functioning autism
Boucher, J., Mayes, A. R., & Bigham, S. (2008) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511490101.016 · Cited by 54
“…intellectual disability in LFA owes more to a decline in verbal intelligence than a decline in nonverbal intelligence (see for example Rumsey, 1992; Lincoln, Allen & Kilman, 1995; Siegel, Minshew & Goldstein, 1996; Lord & Paul, 1997; however, see Mayes & Calhoun, 2003b for some contrary evidence).”
Background
Stability and change of IQ scores in preschool children diagnosed with autistic spectrum disorder
Dietz, C., Willemsen‐Swinkels, S. H. N., Buitelaar, J. K., van Daalen, E., & van Engeland, H. (2007) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-007-0614-3 · Cited by 51
“Increase in IQ scores in children with ASD has been reported in other studies of preschool children [7, 32], and children between preschool years and early adolescence [19, 28].”
Beery VMI performance in autism spectrum disorder
Green, R. R., Bigler, E. D., Froehlich, A. L., Prigge, M. B. D., Travers, B. G., Cariello, A. N., Anderson, J. S., Zielinski, B. A., Alexander, A. L., LANGE, N. D., et al. (2015) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2015.1056131 · Cited by 52
“Reinvall et al. (2013) found deficits in ASD in Visuomotor Precision and Design Copying on the Finnish version of the NEPSY-II, while Mayes and Calhoun (2003, 2007) obtained similar findings using the DTVMI.”
Result
How common are motor problems in children with a developmental disorder: rule or exception?
Pieters, S., Block, K. D., Scheiris, J., Eyssen, M., Desoete, A., Deboutte, D., Waelvelde, H. V., & Roeyers, H. (2011) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2011.01225.x · Cited by 46
“The range of co-morbid motor problems in PDD in small clinical sample studies is large, from 50% to 85% (Manjiviona and Prior 1995, Mayes and Calhoun 2003, Miyahara et al. 1997).”
Background
A Rationale and Strategy for Adapting Dialogic Reading for Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: RECALL
Whalon, K. J., Delano, M. E., & Hanline, M. F. (2013) · Preventing School Failure Alternative Education for Children and Youth · doi:10.1080/1045988x.2012.672347 · Cited by 49
“Most children with ASD experience difficulty with reading, and given their difficulties with language, struggle especially in the area of reading comprehension (Leekam, 2007; Mayes & Calhoun 2003a, 2003b; Nation, Clarke, Wright, & Williams, 2006; Wahlberg & Magliano, 2004).”
Background
Predicting literacy in children with a high-functioning autism spectrum disorder
Jacobs, D., & Richdale, A. L. (2013) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.04.007 · Cited by 43
“FSIQ has previously been identified as predictive of decoding and reading comprehension for the HFASD population (Mayes & Calhoun, 2008) with a higher FSIQ associated with higher decoding ability in individuals with an ASD (Howlin, Goode, Hutton, & Rutter, 2004; Mayes & Calhoun, 2003).”
Differences in verbal and nonverbal IQ test scores in children with autism spectrum disorder
Grondhuis, S. N., Lecavalier, L., Arnold, L. E., Handen, B. L., Scahill, L. D., McDougle, C. J., & Aman, M. G. (2018) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2018.02.001 · Cited by 42
“This was demonstrated in a report by Coolican et al. (2008) that children with ASD had weaker verbal performance compared to nonverbal sections on the SB5 (2012), and by findings of other researchers (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003) using different intelligence assessments.”
Result
Comparing the writing skills of autistic and nonautistic university students: A collaboration with autistic university students
Gillespie‐Lynch, K., Hotez, E., Zajic, M. C., Riccio, A., DeNigris, D., Kofner, B., Bublitz, D., Gaggi, N. L., & Luca, K. (2020) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361320929453 · Cited by 52
“These patterns mirror variations in IQ, aligning with evidence that written expression and IQ are often associated among autistic youth (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003b, 2008).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Unique handwriting performance characteristics of children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder
Rosenblum, S., Amit-Ben-Simhon, H., & Gal, E. (2015) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2015.11.004 · Cited by 41
Autism Spectrum Disorders: Phenotype and Diagnosis
(2006) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/9781420004205-6 · Cited by 40
Profiles and Predictors of Academic and Social School Functioning among Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Zaidman‐Zait, A., Mirenda, P., Szatmári, P., Duku, E., Smith, I. M., Zwaigenbaum, L., Vaillancourt, T., Kerns, C. M., Volden, J., Waddell, C., et al. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2020.1750021 · Cited by 40
Autism spectrum disorder
Couteur, A. S. L., & Szatmári, P. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118381953.ch51 · Cited by 49
Numerical Estimation in Children With Autism
Aagten‐Murphy, D., Attucci, C., Daniel, N., Klaric, E., Burr, D. C., & Pellicano, E. (2015) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1482 · Cited by 41
“Yet between 6% (Jones et al., 2009) and 22% (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003a) of children and adolescents with autism were reported to struggle with calculation and mental arithmetic to an extent that their maths difficulties were incommensurate with intellectual functioning, indicative of a specific…”
Social skills characteristics of students with autism spectrum disorder
Syriopoulou–Delli, C. K., Agaliotis, I., & Papaefstathiou, E. (2016) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2016.1219101 · Cited by 53
Williams Syndrome, Human Self-Domestication, and Language Evolution
Niego, A., & Benítez‐Burraco, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00521 · Cited by 35
A systematic review of modalities in computer-based interventions (CBIs) for language comprehension and decoding skills of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
Khowaja, K., Salim, S. S., Asemi, A., Ghulamani, S., & Shah, A. (2019) · Universal Access in the Information Society · doi:10.1007/s10209-019-00646-1 · Cited by 36
“It consists of two different components: decoding and language comprehension [56, 115, 124, 128, 148].”
Background
Oromotor skills in autism spectrum disorder: A scoping review
Maffei, M. F., Chenausky, K. V., Gill, S. V., Tager-Flusberg, H. B., & Green, J. R. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2923 · Cited by 43
“This heterogeneity has been observed in domains such as language (Rapin, 2006; Tager-Flusberg, 2006) and IQ (Mayes & Calhoun, 2003), as well at the levels of genetics (Szatmari, 1999) and neuroimaging (Martinez-Murcia et al., 2017).”
Background
Using IQ Discrepancy Scores To Examine the Neural Correlates of Specific Cognitive Abilities
Margolis, A. E., Bansal, R., Hao, X., Algermissen, M., Erickson, C., Klahr, K., Naglieri, J. A., & Peterson, B. S. (2013) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0775-13.2013 · Cited by 35
Evaluating motor cortical oscillations and age-related change in autism spectrum disorder
Gaetz, W. C., Rhodes, E., Bloy, L., Blaskey, L. G., Jackel, C. R., Brodkin, E. S., Waldman, A. T., Embick, D., Hall, S., & Roberts, T. P. L. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116349 · Cited by 33
“With respect for divided opinions, we use both approaches to terminology in this paper. impaired in children with ASD [4, 22-24].”
Indicators of Intellectual Disabilities in Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders
Rivard, M., Terroux, A., Mercier, C., & Parent-Boursier, C. (2014) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2198-3 · Cited by 39
The Relationship Between Parent Report of Adaptive Behavior and Direct Assessment of Reading Ability in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder
Arciuli, J., Stevens, K., Trembath, D. L., & Simpson, I. C. (2013) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2013/12-0034 · Cited by 33
The relationship between executive function, neurodevelopmental disorder traits, and academic achievement in university students
Southon, C. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.958013 · Cited by 33
“Research has often associated academic achievement with IQ (Watson and Monroe, 1990; Mayes and Calhoun, 2003; Mayes et al., 2009).”
Background
Untrivial Pursuit: Measuring Motor Procedures Learning in Children with Autism
Sparaci, L., Formica, D., Lasorsa, F. R., Mazzone, L., Valeri, G., & Vicari, S. (2015) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.1455 · Cited by 33
Diagnostic, Demographic, and Neurocognitive Correlates of Dysgraphia in Students with ADHD, Autism, Learning Disabilities, and Neurotypical Development
Mayes, S. D., Frye, S. S., Breaux, R., & Calhoun, S. L. (2018) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-018-9598-9 · Cited by 32
Neural correlates of cognitive variability in childhood autism and relation to heterogeneity in decision-making dynamics
Iuculano, T., Padmanabhan, A., Chen, L., Nicholas, J., Mitsven, S. G., Angeles, C. D. L., & Menon, V. (2020) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100754 · Cited by 34
“, 1994) and underachievement (Chiang and Lin, 2007; Estes et al., 2011; Mayes and Calhoun, 2003) have been reported in the extant literature.”
Background
Autism spectrum disorder
Haq, I., & Couteur, A. S. L. (2004) · Medicine · doi:10.1383/medc.32.8.61.43165 · Cited by 38
Developmental milestones in early childhood and genetic liability to neurodevelopmental disorders
Hannigan, L. J., Askeland, R. B., Ask, H., Tesli, M., Corfield, E. C., Ayorech, Z., Magnus, P. M., Njølstad, P. R., Øyen, A., Stoltenberg, C., et al. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721003330 · Cited by 37
“Children ’ s timely attainment of developmental milestones is an important indicator of the extent to which early neurodevelopment is progressing typically (Bishop, Thurm, Farmer, & Lord, 2016; Johnson, Gliga, Jones, & Charman, 2015; Mayes & Calhoun, 2003).”
Neuropsychology of Child Psychopathology
Tramontana, M. G., Hooper, S. R., Watts‐English, T., Ellison, T., & Bethea, T. C. (2008) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78867-8_5 · Cited by 30
The Behavioral Manifestations of Autism Spectrum Disorders
Kim, S. H., & Lord, C. (2013) · The Neuroscience of Autism Spectrum Disorders · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-391924-3.00002-8 · Cited by 31

Authors: Mayes, S. D., & Calhoun, S. L.
Affiliations: Pennsylvania State University (US)
ORCID: Mayes, Susan Dickerson
Calhoun, Susan L.
Venue: Autism
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2003-03
Volume: 7
Issue: 1
Pages: 65-80
ISSN: 1362-3613 (ISSN-L)
1461-7005
DOI: 10.1177/1362361303007001006
OpenAlex: W2059046774
Cited by: 247
References: 45
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 15 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 16
FWCI: 1.96
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Autism (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
Keywords: ability profiles, IQ, age effects, verbal IQ, non-verbal IQ, motor development, speech development, visual reasoning, graphomotor skills, academic performance, reading, writing, spelling, MATH
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Age Factors, Autistic Disorder, Child, Child, Preschool, Cognition Disorders, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Motor Skills, Reading, Speech Disorders, Writing

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Ability Profiles in Children with Autism: Influence of Age and IQ

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