The DOI matches its Crossref record; 334 of the 334 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Do “Brain-Training” Programs Work?
Abstract
In 2014, two groups of scientists published open letters on the efficacy of brain-training interventions, or “brain games,” for improving cognition. The first letter, a consensus statement from an international group of more than 70 scientists, claimed that brain games do not provide a scientifically grounded way to improve cognitive functioning or to stave off cognitive decline. Several months later, an international group of 133 scientists and practitioners countered that the literature is replete with demonstrations of the benefits of brain training for a wide variety of cognitive and everyday activities. How could two teams of scientists examine the same literature and come to conflicting “consensus” views about the effectiveness of brain training? In part, the disagreement might result from different standards used when evaluating the evidence. To date, the field has lacked a comprehensive review of the brain-training literature, one that examines both the quantity and the quality of the evidence according to a well-defined set of best practices. This article provides such a review, focusing exclusively on the use of cognitive tasks or games as a means to enhance performance on other tasks. We specify and justify a set of best practices for such brain-training interventions and then use those standards to evaluate all of the published peer-reviewed intervention studies cited on the websites of leading brain-training companies listed on Cognitive Training Data ( www.cognitivetrainingdata.org ), the site hosting the open letter from brain-training proponents. These citations presumably represent the evidence that best supports the claims of effectiveness. Based on this examination, we find extensive evidence that brain-training interventions improve performance on the trained tasks, less evidence that such interventions improve performance on closely related tasks, and little evidence that training enhances performance on distantly related tasks or that training improves everyday cognitive performance. We also find that many of the published intervention studies had major shortcomings in design or analysis that preclude definitive conclusions about the efficacy of training, and that none of the cited studies conformed to all of the best practices we identify as essential to drawing clear conclusions about the benefits of brain training for everyday activities. We conclude with detailed recommendations for scientists, funding agencies, and policymakers that, if adopted, would lead to better evidence regarding the efficacy of brain-training interventions.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“our findings challenge the notion that WM training only leads to performance gains in tasks that are closely related to the training79”
From Near transfer to an unrelated N-back task mediates the effect of N-back working memory training on matrix reasoning (2022) · cites this paper as [79]
In the citing paper
“The product is positioned as a cognitive-engagement title that stays carefully on the safer side of the brain-training debate critiqued by Simons et al. (2016).”
From Indie at Scale: How Large Language Models Make Community-Centered Game Development Economically Viable (2026) · cites this paper as Simons et al. (2016)
In the citing paper
“A walk through the App Store for polished, modern games built for these audiences turns up a thin inventory: a handful of audio-only titles from specialist studios, a long tail of exercise-style brain trainers whose evidence base is weak (Simons et al., 2016), and little in between.”
From Indie at Scale: How Large Language Models Make Community-Centered Game Development Economically Viable (2026) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“a long tail of exercise-style brain trainers whose evidence base is weak (Simons et al., 2016)”
From Indie at Scale: How Large Language Models Make Community-Centered Game Development Economically Viable (2026) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“The control condition should be identical to the treatment condition in every way except for the critical ingredient of the treatment (Simons et al., 2016), including matching participant expectations (Boot et al., 2013).”
From Do growth mindset interventions impact students’ academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. (2023) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“An active control group is necessary but not sufficient to attribute differences in achievement to the intervention (Simons et al., 2016).”
From Do growth mindset interventions impact students’ academic achievement? A systematic review and meta-analysis with recommendations for best practices. (2023) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“However, the benefits of that training rarely transfer to other activities that also depend on WM.”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“Second, beyond this broad distinction, there is little understanding of the cognitive constraints on transfer (Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2010; Simons et al., 2016; Taatgen, 2013).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“To date the evidence that WM training can ameliorate these practical problems is not compelling.”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“As in most cognitive-training programs, the findings regarding CWMT have been mixed, which has kept researchers from reaching a definite conclusion on the topic.”
From The cognitive and academic benefits of Cogmed: A meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“The studies investigating the effects of CWMT are undoubtedly the most numerous and best designed (e.g., often including active controls) in this category (Simons et al., 2016, pp. 143-148).”
From The cognitive and academic benefits of Cogmed: A meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“In fact, poor design quality is often associated with more optimistic results in the field of cognitive training (Simons et al., 2016).”
From The cognitive and academic benefits of Cogmed: A meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“these effects should not be interpreted as evidence of memory enhancement.Rather, such effects denote improvement in the ability to perform the trained tasks.”
From The cognitive and academic benefits of Cogmed: A meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
In the citing paper
“The effectiveness of training based on the n-back task in eliciting transfer to other different tasks thus remains unclear.”
From Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating (2019) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“An active control group was included in the study, as recommended by the literature (e.g., [20, 23]) to control for other experiment-related variables, such as contact with the experimenter or assessment context.”
From Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating (2019) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“A recent review on cognitive training [23] also emphasized that the strongest evidence for post-training gains tends to be in favor of nearest transfer, while broader transfer is considerably less frequent.”
From Nearest transfer effects of working memory training: A comparison of two programs focused on working memory updating (2019) · cites this paper as [23]
In the citing paper
“the near transfer results also support the idea that training on either WM or IC leads to specific performance benefits in tasks related to the training (Simons et al., 2016).”
From Training on Working Memory and Inhibitory Control in Young Adults (2016) · cites this paper as Simons et al., 2016
Citations
Cites
James, W. (1891) · Personality Culture Society · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,876
Journal of Clinical Psychiatry
(2018) · Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.5505/kpd · Cited by 13,703
The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance
Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Römer, C. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.3.363 · Cited by 9,564
Power failure: why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience
Button, K. S., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Mokrysz, C., Nosek, B. A., Flint, J., Robinson, E. S. J., & Munafò, M. R. (2013) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3475 · Cited by 7,641 · cited 1×
“Many of the studies tested small samples, limiting their ability to detect small effects and increasing the chances that any observed effects would be spurious (Button et al., 2013).”
BackgroundSimmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2011) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797611417632 · Cited by 6,567
The ASA Statement on p -Values: Context, Process, and Purpose
Wasserstein, R. L., & Lazar, N. A. (2016) · The American Statistician · doi:10.1080/00031305.2016.1154108 · Cited by 6,306
The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition
Salthouse, T. A. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.403 · Cited by 5,902
The Psychology of Learning and Motivation
(2021) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(21)x0002-3 · Cited by 5,082
Why Most Published Research Findings Are False
Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2005) · CHANCE · doi:10.1080/09332480.2005.10722754 · Cited by 4,702
Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90004-2 · Cited by 4,479
Research works printed but not linked: 13
- Angell J. R. Pillsbury W. B. Judd C. H. (1908). The doctrine of formal discipline in the light of contemporary psychology: A discussion of the proceedings from the meeting of the Michigan Schoolmasters’ Club at Ann Arbor Michigan April 2 1908. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/doctrineofformal00michi.
- Bennett C. J. C. (1907). Formal discipline. New York, NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.
- Cogan A., Madey J., Kaufman W., Holmlund G., Bach-y-Rita P. (1977). Pong game as a rehabilitation device. In Warren G. C. (Ed.), Fourth Annual Conference on Systems and Devices for the Disabled (pp. 187–188). Seattle: University of Washington School of Medicine.
- de Groot A. D. (1978). Het denken van de schaker [The thought of the chess player]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)
- Dovis S. van Rentergem J. A. Huizenga H. M. (2015 April 4). Does Cogmed working memory training really improve inattention in daily life? A reanalysis [Reader comment]. Retrieved from http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/comment?id=info:doi/10.1371/annotation/148c2260-54ce-4d85-a49b-740053f6dbc8 · DOI
- Hardy J. L., Drescher D., Sarkar K., Kellett G., Scanlon M. (2011). Enhancing visual attention and working memory with a web-based cognitive training program. Mensa Research Journal, 42(2), 13–20.
- Jaeggi S. M. (2005). Capacity limitations in human cognition: Behavioural and biological considerations (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Bern Switzerland.
- National Institutes of Health. (2010). NIH Consensus Development Conference statement on preventing Alzheimer’s disease and cognitive decline. Retrieved from https://consensus.nih.gov/2010/docs/alz/ALZ_Final_Statement.pdf
- Plomin R., DeFries J. C., McClearn G. E., McGuffin P. (2008). Behavioral genetics (5th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.
- Postman L. (1972). Transfer, interference, and forgetting. In Kling J. W., Riggs L. A. (Eds.), Learning, Motivation, and Memory: Vol. II. Woodworth & Schlosberg’s experimental psychology (3rd ed., pp. 1019–1132). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
- SharpBrains. (2013). Web-based, mobile and biometrics-based technology to assess, monitor and enhance cognition and brain functioning: The digital brain health market, 2012–2020. San Francisco, CA: SharpBrains.
- SharpBrains. (2015, January). The digital brain health market 2012–2020: Web-based, mobile and biometrics-based technology to assess, monitor, and enhance cognition and brain functioning [Addendum]. San Francisco, CA: SharpBrains.
- Wertheimer M. (1959). Productive thinking. New York, NY: Harper & Brothers. (Original work published 1945)
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 1,002
Richmond, S., Kirk, H., Gaunson, T., Bennett, M. L., Bellgrove, M. A., & Cornish, K. M. (2022) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-055385 · Cited by 17
Sharma, S., & Brunet, J. (2023) · Current Oncology · doi:10.3390/curroncol30060422 · Cited by 17
Establishing a Scientific Consensus on the Cognitive Benefits of Physical Activity
Nazlieva, N., Mavilidi, M. F., Baars, M., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17010029 · Cited by 18
Brydges, C. R., Carlson, M. C., Andrews, R. M., Rebok, G. W., & Bielak, A. A. M. (2020) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbaa009 · Cited by 17
A Memory Game for Elderly People: Development and Evaluation
Sánchez-Zhunio, C., Cedillo, P., & Vázquez‐Patiño, A. (2020) · International Conference on eDemocracy & eGovernment · doi:10.1109/icedeg48599.2020.9096862 · Cited by 17
Giulietti, M. V., Spatuzzi, R., Fabbietti, P., & Vespa, A. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13030484 · Cited by 17
Virtuous Play: The Ethics, Pleasures, and Burdens of Brain Training
Wade, M. (2018) · Science as Culture · doi:10.1080/09505431.2018.1458828 · Cited by 20
Kjällander, S., & Frankenberg, S. J. (2018) · International Journal of Research & Method in Education · doi:10.1080/1743727x.2018.1470161 · Cited by 18
Ageing with bilingualism: benefits and challenges
Nickels, L., Hameau, S., Nair, V. K., Barr, P., & Biedermann, B. (2019) · Speech Language and Hearing · doi:10.1080/2050571x.2018.1555988 · Cited by 18
Sværke, K., Omkvist, K. V., Havsteen, I. B., & Christensen, H. K. (2019) · Journal of Stroke and Cerebrovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2019.104356 · Cited by 17
Cognitive Endurance as Human Capital
Brown, C., Kaur, S., Kingdon, G., & Schofield, H. (2022) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w30133 · Cited by 17
A Mini-Review of Work Stress and Mindfulness: A Neuropsychological Point of View
González-Palau, F., & Medrano, L. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.854204 · Cited by 16
Milková, E., Moldoveanu, M., & Krcil, T. (2025) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su17104422 · Cited by 16
Ehmann, P., Beavan, A., Spielmann, J., Mayer, J., Ruf, L., Altmann, S., Forcher, L., Klever, N., Rohrmann, S., Nuß, C., et al. (2022) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102220 · Cited by 16
Reid, A. G., Rakhilin, M., Patel, A. D., Urry, H. L., & Thomas, A. K. (2017) · Psychomusicology Music Mind and Brain · doi:10.1037/pmu0000179 · Cited by 16
A New Framework of Design and Continuous Evaluation to Improve Brain Training
Seitz, A. R. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-017-0058-8 · Cited by 17
Roheger, M., Kessler, J., & Kalbe, E. (2019) · Cognitive and Behavioral Neurology · doi:10.1097/wnn.0000000000000195 · Cited by 16
Charness, N. H. (2019) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000502141 · Cited by 16
Self-citationBonnechère, B., Bier, J., Hove, O. V., Sheldon, S., Samadoulougou, S., Kirakoya-Samadoulougou, F., & Klass, M. (2020) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/17121 · Cited by 16
McLoughlin, S., Tyndall, I. T., Pereira, A., & Mulhern, T. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-020-00187-z · Cited by 18
Shifting Minds: A Quantitative Reappraisal of Cognitive-Intervention Research
Moreau, D. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620950696 · Cited by 16
Effect of Video Observation and Motor Imagery on Simple Reaction Time in Cadet Pilots
Sirico, F., Romano, V., Sacco, A. M., Belviso, I., Didonna, V., Nurzyńska, D., Castaldo, C., Palermi, S., Sannino, G., Valle, E. D., et al. (2020) · Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology · doi:10.3390/jfmk5040089 · Cited by 16
Peach, R. K., & Hanna, L. E. (2021) · Language Cognition and Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/23273798.2021.1894346 · Cited by 16
Relative effectiveness of general versus specific cognitive training for aging adults.
Gray, N., Yoon, J., Charness, N. H., Boot, W. R., Roque, N. A., Andringa, R., Harrell, E. R., Lewis, K. G., & Vitale, T. (2021) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000663 · Cited by 17
Self-citationDoes Leadership Development Need to Care About Neuro-Ethics?
Lindebaum, D., Al‐Amoudi, I., & Brown, V. L. (2017) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2016.0220 · Cited by 18
Rabipour, S., Davidson, P. S. R., & Kristjansson, E. (2018) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0073-4 · Cited by 16
Action Video Games DO NOT Promote Visual Attention
Roque, N. A., & Boot, W. R. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-95495-0_9 · Cited by 16
Self-citationPupillary and behavioral markers of alerting and orienting: An individual difference approach
Aminihajibashi, S., Hagen, T., Laeng, B., & Espeseth, T. (2020) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2020.105597 · Cited by 16
Cognitive and academic benefits of music training with children: A multilevel meta-analysisPreprint
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. R. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7s8wr · Cited by 19
Primitive visual channels have a causal role in cognitive transfer
Saban, W., Raz, G., Grabner, R. H., Gabay, S., & Kadosh, R. C. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88271-y · Cited by 15
Zhang, B., & Robb, N. (2021) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440211014507 · Cited by 16
Working Memory Training in Youth With Autism, Fragile X, and Intellectual Disability: A Pilot Study
Calub, C. A., Benyakorn, S., Sun, S., Iosif, A., Boyle, L. H., Solomon, M., Hessl, D. R., & Schweitzer, J. B. (2022) · American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1352/1944-7558-127.5.369 · Cited by 18
One-year cognitive outcomes from a multiple real-world skill learning intervention with older adults
Ferguson, L., Sain, D., Kürüm, E., Strickland-Hughes, C. M., Rebok, G. W., & Wu, R. (2023) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2023.2197847 · Cited by 15
Effects of Nonaction Videogames on Attention and Memory in Young Adults
Ruiz-Marquez, E., Prieto, A. F., Mayas, J., Toril, P., Avilés, J. M. R., & Ballesteros, S. (2019) · Games for Health Journal · doi:10.1089/g4h.2019.0004 · Cited by 15
Ferreira-Brito, F., Alves, S., Santos, O., Guerreiro, T., Caneiras, C. S. G., Carriço, L. M., & Verdelho, A. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm9123821 · Cited by 16
Dobrowolski, P., Skorko, M., Myśliwiec, M., Kowalczyk‐Grębska, N., Michalak, J., & Brzezicka, A. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-021-00211-w · Cited by 15
Beyond IQ: The Importance of Metacognition for the Promotion of Global Wellbeing
Varshney, L. R., & Barbey, A. K. (2021) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence9040054 · Cited by 15
Using big data to solve real problems through academic and industry partnerships
Mitroff, S. R., & Sharpe, B. T. (2017) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.09.013 · Cited by 15
Valdés, E. G., Andel, R., Lister, J. J., Gamaldo, A. A., & Edwards, J. D. (2017) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264317738828 · Cited by 15
Faust, M. E., Multhaup, K. S., Ong, M. S., Demakis, G. J., & Balz, K. G. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz096 · Cited by 15
Maeir, T., Nahum, M., Makranz, C., Hoba, A., Peretz, T., Nagary, S. N., Silberman, N., & Gilboa, Y. (2020) · British Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.1177/0308022620950993 · Cited by 15
Mayo, S. J., Rourke, S. B., Atenafu, E. G., Vitorino, R., Chen, C. I., & Kuruvilla, J. G. (2021) · Pilot and Feasibility Studies · doi:10.1186/s40814-021-00778-3 · Cited by 15
Can people detect errors in shadows and reflections?
Nightingale, S. J., Wade, K. A., Farid, H., & Watson, D. G. (2019) · Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-019-01773-w · Cited by 14
Current Trends in the Development of Neuroscientific Research in Education
Khramova, M. V., Hramov, A. E., & Fedorov, A. (2023) · Voprosy Obrazovaniya/ Educational Studies Moscow · doi:10.17323/vo-2023-16701 · Cited by 16
Automated discovery of symbolic laws governing skill acquisition from naturally occurring data
Liu, S., Li, Q., Shen, X., Sun, J., & Yang, Z. (2024) · Nature Computational Science · doi:10.1038/s43588-024-00629-0 · Cited by 16
Ramírez-delaCruz, M., García, P. E., Abián, P., Bravo‐Sànchez, A., Piñas-Bonilla, I., & Abián‐Vicén, J. (2024) · European Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1007/s00394-024-03486-9 · Cited by 15
Cognitive training interventions for substance use disorders: what they really offer?
Pazoki, Z., Kheirkhah, M. T., & Gharibzadeh, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1388935 · Cited by 14
Kalbe, E., Bintener, C., Ophey, A., Reuter, C., Göbel, S. P., Klöters, S., Baller, G., & Kessler, J. (2018) · Health · doi:10.4236/health.2018.101003 · Cited by 16
Wan, X., Lighthall, N., & Xie, R. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107413 · Cited by 15
Shochat, G., Maoz, S., Stark‐Inbar, A., Blumenfeld, B., Rand, D., Preminger, S., & Sacher, Y. (2017) · International Conference on Virtual Rehabilitation · doi:10.1109/icvr.2017.8007530 · Cited by 14
Does Blindness Boost Working Memory? A Natural Experiment and Cross-Cultural Study
Rindermann, H., Ackermann, A. L., & Nijenhuis, J. T. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01571 · Cited by 15
McLoughlin, S., Tyndall, I. T., & Pereira, A. (2020) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-020-09399-x · Cited by 16
Adult-Life Occupational Exposures: Enriched Environment or a Stressor for the Aging Brain?
Burzynska, A. Z., Jiao, Y., & Ganster, D. C. (2018) · Work Aging and Retirement · doi:10.1093/workar/way007 · Cited by 15
Hausman, H. K., Alexander, G. E., Cohen, R., Marsiske, M., DeKosky, S. T., Hishaw, G. A., O'Shea, A., Kraft, J. N., Dai, Y., Wu, S., et al. (2023) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2023.05.021 · Cited by 13
Zhao, X., Ji, C., Zhang, C., Huang, C., Zhou, Y., & Wang, L. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04917-3 · Cited by 14
Agostino, S., Calandretti, M., Veglio, F., & Daga, F. A. (2023) · The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness · doi:10.23736/s0022-4707.23.14996-6 · Cited by 13
Executive functioning profiles and mathematical and reading achievement in Grades 2, 6, and 10
Carriedo, N., Rodríguez‐Villagra, O. A., Pérez, L., & Iglesias-Sarmiento, V. (2024) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101353 · Cited by 18
Felber, N. A., Mihailov, E., & Wangmo, T. (2025) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2025.1502450 · Cited by 13
Playful Cognitive Training with Physical Interactive Tiles for Elderly
Liu, Y., Lund, H. H., & Wu, L. (2018) · International Conference on Information and Communication Technology Robotics (ICT-ROBOT) · doi:10.1109/ict-robot.2018.8549898 · Cited by 13
Beavan, A., Spielmann, J., & Mayer, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02773 · Cited by 13
The changing face of aging: Characteristics of older adult user groups
Czaja, S. J., & Weingast, S. Z. (2020) · Gerontechnology · doi:10.4017/gt.2020.19.2.004.00 · Cited by 13
The Effectiveness of Working Memory Training for Children With Low Working Memory
Spencer‐Smith, M. M., Quach, J., Mensah, F. K., Roberts, G., Gathercole, S. E., Wake, M. A., & Anderson, P. J. (2020) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2019-4028 · Cited by 15
Self-citationKim, S., Park, E., Cha, H., Jung, J., Jung, T., & Chang, Y. (2020) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs10110175 · Cited by 13
Baranski, M. F. S. (2021) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-020-00198-w · Cited by 14
Voelbel, G. T., Lindsey, H. M., Mercuri, G., Bushnik, T. L., & Rath, J. F. (2021) · Neurorehabilitation · doi:10.3233/nre-218025 · Cited by 13
The neural correlates of working memory training in typically developing children
Jones, J. S., Adlam, A., Benattayallah, A., & Milton, F. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13721 · Cited by 15
Nazari, S., Hakiminejad, F., & Hassanzadeh, S. (2022) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2022.104260 · Cited by 13
Six Suggestions for Research on Games in Cognitive Science
Chabris, C. F. (2017) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12267 · Cited by 13
Self-citationCremen, I. A., & Carson, R. G. (2017) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2017.00276 · Cited by 14
From eyes to hands: Transfer of learning in the Simon task across motor effectors
Verghese, A., Mattingley, J. B., Palmer, P. E., & Dux, P. E. (2017) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-017-1427-1 · Cited by 14
Barner, D., Athanasopoulou, A., Chu, J., Lewis, M. L., Marchand, E., Schneider, R. M., & Frank, M. C. (2018) · Journal of Numerical Cognition · doi:10.5964/jnc.v3i3.106 · Cited by 13
Landis, T. D., Hart, K. C., & Graziano, P. A. (2018) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2018.1526271 · Cited by 18
Few Effects of a 5-Week Adaptive Computerized Cognitive Training Program in Healthy Older Adults
Rabipour, S., Morrison, C., Crompton, J., Petrucelli, M., Germano, M. D. O. G., Popescu, A., & Davidson, P. S. R. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-019-00147-2 · Cited by 13
Rebok, G. W., Tzuang, M., & Parisi, J. M. (2019) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbz107 · Cited by 13
Xuan, B. (2020) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2020/1869459 · Cited by 15
Withiel, T., Wong, D. K., Ponsford, J. L., Cadilhac, D. A.-M., & Stolwyk, R. J. (2018) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2018.1503083 · Cited by 13
Irwin Harper, L. N., Groves, N. B., Marsh, C. L., Cole, A. M., & Kofler, M. J. (2023) · Child Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/09297049.2022.2138301 · Cited by 12
Groves, N. B., Chan, E. S. M., Marsh, C. L., Gaye, F., Jaisle, E. M., & Kofler, M. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1034722 · Cited by 14
Dieciuc, M., Zhang, S., Gray, N., Lustria, M. L. A., Carr, D. C., Charness, N. H., & Boot, W. R. (2023) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gnad048 · Cited by 12
Self-citationThe Impact of Video Games on Cognitive Processes. Review of Modern Research
Михайловна, Л. Н. (2024) · Journal of Modern Foreign Psychology · doi:10.17759/jmfp.2023120410 · Cited by 12
Joyal, M., Sicard, A., Penhune, V. B., Jackson, P. L., & Tremblay, P. (2024) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.15230 · Cited by 12
Bhargava, Y., Kottapalli, A., & Baths, V. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-75065-1 · Cited by 13
Ferizaj, D., Stamm, O., Perotti, L., Martin, E. M., Finke, K., Finke, C., Strobach, T., & Steinert, A. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02458-w · Cited by 12
Longitudinal relations of executive functions to academic achievement and wellbeing in adolescence
Kitil, M. J., Diamond, A. D., Guhn, M., & Schonert-Reichl, K. A. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1573107 · Cited by 12
Cerreta, A., Mruczek, R. E. B., & Berryhill, M. E. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570030 · Cited by 13
Hernes, S. S., Flak, M. M., Løhaugen, G. C. C., Skranes, J. S., Hol, H. R., Madsen, B., Knapskog, A., Engvig, A., Pripp, A. H., Ulstein, I. D., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.624253 · Cited by 12
Playing Minecraft Improves Hippocampal-Associated Memory for Details in Middle Aged Adults
Stark, C. E. L., Clemenson, G. D., Aluru, U., Hatamian, N., & Stark, S. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · doi:10.3389/fspor.2021.685286 · Cited by 12
Limits of near transfer: Content- and operation-specific effects of working memory training.
Himi, S. A., Stadler, M. J., von Bastian, C. C., Bühner, M., & Hilbert, S. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001328 · Cited by 15
Quality standards and recommendations for research in music and neuroplasticity
Papatzikis, E., Agapaki, M., Selvan, R. N., Pandey, V., & Zeba, F. (2022) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.14944 · Cited by 12
Playing for the thrill and skill. Quiz games as means for mood and competence repair
Koban, K., Breuer, J., Rieger, D., Mohseni, M. R., Noack, S., Bente, G., & Ohler, P. (2018) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2018.1515637 · Cited by 14
Application of Machine Learning Models for Tracking Participant Skills in Cognitive Training
Sandeep, S., Shelton, C. R., Pahor, A., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01532 · Cited by 14
Improving Language Acquisition and Processing With Cognitive Stimulation
Tapia, J. L., & Duñabeitia, J. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.663773 · Cited by 16
Longitudinal white matter changes associated with cognitive training
Nichols, E. S., Erez, J., Stojanoski, B. B., Lyons, K., Witt, S. T., Mace, C., Khalid, S., & Owen, A. M. (2021) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25580 · Cited by 16
Protocol for a randomized controlled trial of piano training on cognitive and psychosocial outcomes
Bugos, J. A. (2018) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.13663 · Cited by 12
Hospital-Based Modified Cogmed Working Memory Training for Youth With ADHD
Sandberg, S., & McAuley, T. (2021) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547211066487 · Cited by 12
A Machine Learning Approach to Personalize Computerized Cognitive Training Interventions
Vladisauskas, M., Belloli, L. M. L., Slezak, D. F., & Goldin, A. P. (2022) · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.3389/frai.2022.788605 · Cited by 11
Persa, N., Anderson, C. G., Martinez, R., Collins, M., Anderson-Coto, M. J., & Squire, K. D. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction · doi:10.1145/3490169 · Cited by 13
Investigating the Role of Individual Differences in Adherence to Cognitive Training
Tullo, D., Feng, Y., Pahor, A., Cote, J. M., Seitz, A. R., & Jaeggi, S. M. (2023) · Journal of Cognition · doi:10.5334/joc.315 · Cited by 11
Mashburn, C. A., Burgoyne, A. P., Tsukahara, J. S., Pak, R., Coyne, J. T., Sibley, C. M., Foroughi, C. K., & Engle, R. W. (2024) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2024.101835 · Cited by 12
Johansen, T. E. B., Matre, M. E., Løvstad, M., Lund, A. D., Martinsen, A. C. T., Olsen, A., Becker, F., Brunborg, C., Ponsford, J. L., Spikman, J. M., et al. (2024) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-024-08178-7 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Simons, D. J., Boot, W. R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S. E., Chabris, C. F., Hambrick, D. Z., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
- Florida State University (US)
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit (GB)
- Union College (US)
- Michigan State University (US)
- Department of Educational Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
- Corresponding author
- Simons, Daniel J.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychological Science in the Public Interest
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2016-10
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 103-186
- ISSN
- 1529-1006 (ISSN-L)
- 2160-0031
- OpenAlex
- W2528124781
- Semantic Scholar
- 224d08a15960c774163fd53391d90b4caffe84e8
- Cited by
- 1,183
- References
- 328
- Citations by year
- 2026: 96 · 2025: 112 · 2024: 101 · 2023: 89 · 2022: 116 · 2021: 123 · 2020: 137 · 2019: 161 · 2018: 137 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 10
- FWCI
- 16.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Science in the Public Interest (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- brain training, cognitive training, cognitive games, transfer of training, cognitive decline, evidence evaluation
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Humans, Learning
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
