Longitudinal Verbal Fluency in Normal Aging, Preclinical, and Prevalent Alzheimer’s Disease
Open accessAbstract
Background: Few longitudinal studies evaluate differences in patterns of change of category compared to letter fluency across the spectrum of cognitive impairment. Methods: We compared change in category (animal and supermarket) and letter (F, A, S) fluency among 239 participants in 3 groups: remained cognitively normal throughout follow-up (n = 96), developed Alzheimer’s Disease (AD; preclinical AD, n = 21), and with AD at initial testing (prevalent AD, n = 122). Results: At baseline, prevalent and preclinical AD groups scored lower on animal than letter fluency. On all fluency measures, the prevalent AD declined faster than other groups (all P < .0001), and preclinical AD declined faster than unimpaired (all P ≤ .02). Overall, animal fluency declined faster than letter fluency; animal fluency declined significantly faster than letter fluency among cognitively normal and prevalent AD participants. Conclusion: Greater longitudinal declines in category compared to letter fluency are consistent with cross-sectional studies. Steeper declines on both fluency measures distinguish preclinical AD from cognitively unimpaired individuals.
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Declines in global cognition and executive function markedly raise the risk of death, dementia, and functional disability.
“Declines in global cognition and executive function markedly raise the risk of death, dementia, and functional disability.39,40,41”
From Sex differences in cognitive decline among US adults (2021) · cites this paper as [40]
The Results (page unavailable) report faster declines in verbal fluency among participants who subsequently developed Alzheimer’s disease than among cognitively normal participants, supporting a narrower link with dementia. The paper does not establish that declines in global cognition or executive function raise the risk of death or functional disability, nor does it quantify a marked increase in risk. (LLM, conf=0.83)
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“In addition, studies have shown that category fluency declines at a faster rate than letter fluency in individuals with AD (Clark et al., 2009).”
BackgroundHamel, R. E. G., Köhler, S., Sistermans, N., Koene, T., Pijnenburg, Y., van der Flier, W. M., Scheltens, P., Aalten, P., Verhey, F., Visser, P. J., et al. (2014) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291714002645 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Studies with longer follow-up reported differences in episodic memory, verbal fluency and abstract thinking (a part of executive functioning) nine (Amieva et al. 2005) to five (only verbal fluency reported) (Clark et al. 2009) years prior to AD dementia diagnosis.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialKatzorke, A., Zeller, J., Müller, L. D., Lauer, M., Polak, T., Deckert, J., & Herrmann, M. (2018) · Psychiatry research. Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2018.02.003 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Neuroanatomical correlates of verbal fluency in early Alzheimer’s disease and normal aging
Rodríguez‐Aranda, C., Waterloo, K. K., Johnsen, S. H., Eldevik, P., Sparr, S., Wikran, G., Herder, M., & Vangberg, T. R. (2016) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2016.03.001 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Mild Cognitive Impairments Moderate the Effect of Time on Verbal Fluency Performance
Demetriou, E. A., & Holtzer, R. (2016) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617716000825 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Literature proposes that, compared to phonemic fluency, category fluency is superior in identifying individuals who subsequently develop AD (Clark et al., 2009; Fernaeus, Ostberg, Hellstrom, & Wahlund, 2008).”
BackgroundRationale and Design of the Emory Healthy Aging and Emory Healthy Brain Studies
Goetz, M., Hanfelt, J., John, S., Bergquist, S., Loring, D., Quyyumi, A., Clifford, G., Vaccarino, V., Goldstein, F., Johnson, T. M., et al. (2019) · Neuroepidemiology · doi:10.1159/000501856 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Semantic verbal fluency impairment is detectable in patients with subjective cognitive decline
Nikolai, T., Bezdicek, O., Markova, H., Štěpánková, H., Michalec, J., Kopeček, M., Dokoupilová, M., Hort, J., & Vyhnálek, M. (2018) · Applied neuropsychology. Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2017.1326047 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“and semantic dementia (SD)—both impact the temporal lobes early in the disease course—show disproportionally larger deficits in SVF compared to PVF (Clark et al., 2009; Murphy, Rich, & Troyer, 2006; Rinehardt et al., 2014; Rogers, Ivanoiu, Patterson, & Hodges, 2006).”
BackgroundResultChronic kidney disease and cognitive performance: NHANES 2011–2014
Li, T., Hu, Z., Qiao, L., Wu, Y., & Ye, T. (2024) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-024-04917-2 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Lexical retrieval in discourse: An early indicator of Alzheimer's dementia
Pekkala, S., Wiener, D., Himali, J., Beiser, A., Obler, L., Liu, Y.-L., Mckee, A., Auerbach, S., Seshadri, S., Wolf, P., et al. (2013) · Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics · doi:10.3109/02699206.2013.815278 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…in individuals with MCI have revealed reductions as compared with healthy controls, both cross-sectionally (Clark et al., 2009; Doi, 2013; Levinoff et al., 2006; Nutter-Upham et al., 2008; Östberg et al., 2005) and longitudinally (Chen et al., 2001; Clark et al., 2009; Grober et al., 2008).”
InfluentialA brief neuropsychological battery for use in the chronic heart failure population
Bauer, L., Pozehl, B., Hertzog, M., Johnson, J. K., Zimmerman, L., & Filipi, M. (2012) · European Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ejcnurse.2011.03.007 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Alogia and formal thought disorder: differential patterns of verbal fluency task performance.
Docherty, A. R., Berenbaum, H., & Kerns, J. (2011) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2011.04.004 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…may exhibit relatively poorer performance on category fluency than would be expected based on their letter fluency performance, as seen in studies of Alzheimer’s patients (e.g. Clark et al., 2009; Rascovsky et al., 2007; Jones et al., 2006; Rogers et al., 2006; Sherman and Massman, 1999).”
BackgroundLi, W.-Y., Li, S.-N., Shang, Y., Zhuang, W.-S., Yan, G., Chen, Z.-M., & Lyu, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1117056 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“The absolute verbal fluency and executive function of the participants were examined (Clark et al., 2009; Sutin et al., 2022).”
BackgroundExecutive functions in clinical and preclinical Alzheimer's disease
Allain, P., Etcharry‐Bouyx, F., & Verny, C. (2013) · Revue Neurologique · doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2013.07.020 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Verbal fluency as a screening tool for mild cognitive impairment
McDonnell, M., Dill, L., Panos, S. E., Amano, S. S., Brown, W. S., Giurgius, S., Small, G. W., & Miller, K. (2019) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610219000644 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
“…normal aging, individuals between the age of 50–70 will typically recall 21 animals, and individuals aged 70 and older recall approximately 18 animals (Price et al., 2012), which is higher than individuals with a-MCI and AD, who were able to list 15 and 8 animals, respectively (Clark et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialSanabria, Á., Alegret, M., Rodríguez‐Gómez, O., Valero, S., Sotolongo‐Grau, Ó., Monté, G. C., Ruiz, C. A., Espinosa, A., Ortega, G., Pérez‐Cordón, A., et al. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-21644-y · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Mirandez, R. M., Aprahamian, I., Talib, L., Forlenza, O., & Radanovic, M. (2017) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610217000102 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“…fluency, the most frequently studied category, our results reproduce those described in several studies in different languages (Cunje et al., 2007; Clark et al., 2009; Kawano et al., 2010; Malek-Ahmadi et al., 2011; Delgado-Derio et al., 2012; Eppig et al., 2012; López-Higes et al., 2014),…”
ResultClark, D. G., Kapur, P., Geldmacher, D., Brockington, J., Harrell, L., DeRamus, T. P., Blanton, P., Lokken, K., Nicholas, A. P., & Marson, D. (2014) · Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2013.12.013 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Wu, Z.-M., Woods, R., Wolfe, R., Storey, E., Chong, T., Shah, R., Orchard, S., McNeil, J., Murray, A., & Ryan, J. (2021) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/dad2.12180 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
The Role of Verb Fluency in the Detection of Early Cognitive Impairment in Alzheimer’s Disease
Alegret, M., Peretó, M., Pérez, A., Valero, S., Espinosa, A., Ortega, G., Hernández, I., Mauleon, A., Rosende-Roca, M., Vargas, L., et al. (2018) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-170826 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“the time of conversion was taken into account in the Cox Regression analyses, the verb fluency only showed a significant effect on the faster conversion from CH to MCI, but not from MCI to dementia, findings that concur with results of previous studies using category [37,38,66] and letter verbal fluencies [38,66].”
Disruption of Semantic Network in Mild Alzheimer’s Disease Revealed by Resting-State fMRI
Mascali, D., DiNuzzo, M., Serra, L., Mangia, S., Maraviglia, B., Bozzali, M., & Giove, F. (2017) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.11.030 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…in FC between a region involved in phonemic processing (i.e., planum temporale) and a region involved in lexical/semantic processing (i.e., pMTG), might explain previous results showing less impaired phonemic fluency than category fluency in AD patients (Henry et al., 2004; Clark et al., 2009).”
ResultKraan, C., Stolwyk, R., & Testa, R. (2013) · Applied neuropsychology. Adult · doi:10.1080/09084282.2012.670157 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Hsiao, C.-C., Yang, A.-M., Wang, C.-K., & Lin, C.-Y. (2023) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2023.116860 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Eggenberger, P., Bürgisser, M., Rossi, R. M., & Annaheim, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.585904 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Wei, B., Dong, Q., Ma, J., & Zhang, A. (2023) · Lipids in Health and Disease · doi:10.1186/s12944-023-01959-0 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“The NHANES 2011– 2014 modules consist of CERAD-WL, CERAD-DR [38], AFT [39], and the DSST [40].”
MethodFrailty is associated with worse cognitive functioning in older adults
Li, C.-M., Ge, S., Yin, Y., Tian, C., Mei, Y., & Han, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1108902 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
“It has also been widely used in epidemiological studies (26).”
MethodAccrual of functional redundancy along the lifespan and its effects on cognition
Sadiq, M. U., Langella, S., Giovanello, K. S., Mucha, P. J., & Dayan, E. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117737 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Social network type and subsequent cognitive health among older Europeans
Cohn‐Schwartz, E., Levinsky, M., & Litwin, H. (2020) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610220003439 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“The fl uency test is considered to be a measure of executive functioning, but also re fl ects other processes, such as semantic memory and processing speed (Clark et al. , 2009; Hau-grud et al. , 2011).”
Machine learning for the prediction of cognitive impairment in older adults
Li, W.-Y., Zeng, L., Yuan, S., Shang, Y., Zhuang, W.-S., Chen, Z., & Lyu, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2023.1158141 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
“In the AF test (Clark et al., 2009), participants were asked to name as many animals as possible in 1min, and received 1 point for each correct answer.”
MethodCurrent Understanding of Verbal Fluency in Alzheimer’s Disease: Evidence to Date
Wright, L., Marco, M. D., & Venneri, A. (2023) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s284645 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Paek, E. J., Murray, L. L., & Newman, S. D. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2020.00073 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Rivera, D., Olabarrieta-Landa, L., der Elst, W. V., Gonzalez, I., Rodríguez-Agudelo, Y., Aguayo-Arelis, A., Rodríguez-Irizarry, W., de la Cadena, C. G., & Arango-Lasprilla, J. (2019) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/neu0000518 · Cited by 35
Weak Grip Strength and Cognition Predict Functional Limitation in Older Europeans
Wang, T., Wu, Y.-L., Li, W., Li, S.-Y., Sun, Y.-P., Li, S.-X., Zhang, D.-F., & Tan, Q. (2018) · Journal of The American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.15611 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Spin exercise improves semantic fluency in previously sedentary older adults.
Nocera, J. R., McGregor, K., Hass, C., & Crosson, B. (2015) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2013-0107 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Improving clinical cognitive testing
Daffner, K., Gale, S., Barrett, A. M., Boeve, B., Chatterjee, A., Coslett, H. B., D'Esposito, M., Finney, G. R., Gitelman, D., Hart, J., et al. (2015) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000001763 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“This test has been studied in longitudinal cohorts of aging and patients with AD at various stages of severity.(33,34) Impaired semantic processing, as indexed by reduced semantic fluency, is a common early sign of underlying AD pathology.”
BackgroundQiu, X., Kuang, J., Huang, Y., Wei, C., & Zheng, X. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-19332-w · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“The test’s essence lies in the participant’s ability to enumerate as many animals as possible within a 60-second frame [29].”
BackgroundPromoting Cognitive Health in Elder Care with Large Language Model-Powered Socially Assistive Robots
Lima, M. R. D., O'Connell, A., Zhou, F. B., Nagahara, A., Hulyalkar, A., Deshpande, A., Thomason, J., Vaidyanathan, R., & Matarić, M. J. (2025) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3706598.3713582 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Dong, X., Jiang, H., Li, S.-Y., & Zhang, D.-F. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.712237 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“…they have been used in large-scale screening and epidemiological studies to examine the associations between cognitive performance and many of the medical conditions and risk factors measured in NHANES examination (Fillenbaum et al., 2008; Gao et al., 2009; Clark et al., 2009; Jaeger, 2018).”
MethodLi, W., Marta Kutas, A., Gray, J. A., Hagerman, R. J., & Olichney, J. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.023 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
García‐Herranz, S., Mardomingo, C. D., Venero, C., & Peraita, H. (2019) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2019.1698710 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Which neuropsychological tests predict progression to Alzheimer’s disease in Hispanics?
Weissberger, G. H., Salmon, D. P., Bondi, M. W., & Gollan, T. H. (2013) · Neuropsychology · doi:10.1037/a0032399 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“…to be determined, however, whether or not verbal fluency (particularly semantic fluency) is as effective in detecting preclinical AD in bilinguals as it is in monolinguals (e.g., Albert, Moss, Tanzi, & Jones, 2001; Clark et al., 2009; for reviews, see Twamley et al., 2006, and Henry et al., 2004).”
BackgroundPerformance on a measure of category fluency in cognitively impaired elderly
Hall, J., Harvey, M., Vo, H. T., & O'Bryant, S. E. (2011) · Neuropsychology, development, and cognition. Section B, Aging, neuropsychology and cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2011.557495 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Cortical Changes in Incipient Alzheimer's Disease
Prestia, A., Drago, V., Rasser, P. E., Bonetti, M., Thompson, P. M., & Frisoni, G. B. (2011) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2010-101191 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Cortical Thickness and Semantic Fluency in Alzheimer’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment
Eastman, J. A., Hwang, K., Lazaris, A. S., Chow, N., Ramirez, L. M., Babakchanian, S., Woo, E., Thompson, P. M., & Apostolova, L. G. (2013) · American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® · doi:10.7726/ajad.2013.1006 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Semantic fluency is a sensitive measure for distinguishing between normal subjects and those with early cognitive decline who proceed to AD (Canning, Leach et al. 2004; Grundman, Petersen et al. 2004; Clark, Gatz et al. 2009).”
Cintoli, S., Favilli, L., Morganti, R., Siciliano, G., Ceravolo, R., & Tognoni, G. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-52562-x · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“The word lists generated by the fluency test are a rich source of information to foresee outcomes in MCI 32 .”
BackgroundOlder adults, cognitively stimulating activities and change in cognitive function
Cegolon, A., & Jenkins, A. (2022) · International Journal of Lifelong Education · doi:10.1080/02601370.2022.2082574 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Verbal fluency is one of the most commonly used tasks in clinical practice to assess semantic memory (Clark et al., 2009; Dal Bianco et al., 2013).”
MethodEffects of Combined Aerobic Exercise and Cognitive Training on Verbal Fluency in Older Adults
Nocera, J. R., Mammino, K., Kommula, Y., Wharton, W., Crosson, B., & McGregor, K. (2020) · Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine · doi:10.1177/2333721419896884 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Phonological and Semantic Fluency in Alzheimer’s Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Olmos-Villaseñor, R., Sepulveda-Silva, C., Julio–Ramos, T., Fuentes–López, E., Toloza–Ramirez, D., Santibañez, R. A., Copland, D. A., & Méndez‐Orellana, C. (2023) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-221272 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Sun, X.-Y., Yu, W.-P., Wang, M.-S., Hu, J., & Li, Y.-N. (2023) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1135085 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“AFT is a language fluency task that checks execution functions (21).”
BackgroundInfluence of APOE Status on Lexical–Semantic Skills in Mild Cognitive Impairment
Biundo, R., Gardini, S., Caffarra, P., Concari, L., Martorana, D., Neri, T., Shanks, M., & Venneri, A. (2011) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s135561771100021x · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“Some studies have examined verbal fluency in the preclinical phase of AD and have also found significant deficits in category fluency (Clark et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialTessaro, B., Hermes-Pereira, A., Schilling, L., Fonseca, R., Kochhann, R., & Hübner, L. (2020) · Dementia & Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1590/1980-57642020dn14-030011 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Roy, S., Drake, A. S., Snyder, S., Cline, B., Khan, A., Fuchs, T. A., Zivadinov, R., Weinstock‐Guttman, B., Szigeti, K., & Benedict, R. H. B. (2018) · Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.msard.2018.03.008 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Adamczuk, K., Weer, A. D., Nelissen, N., Dupont, P. J., Sunaert, S. G., Bettens, K., Sleegers, K., Broeckhoven, C. V., Laere, K. V., & Vandenberghe, R. R. (2014) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhu286 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Word finding difficulties are frequent in clinically probable AD, even at a pre-dementia stage (Bayles and Tomoeda 1983; Huff et al. 1986; Chertkow and Bub 1990; Vandenbulcke et al. 2007; Apostolova et al. 2008; Clark et al. 2009; Sugarman et al. 2012).”
Ciardullo, S., Muraca, E., Bianconi, E., Ronchetti, C., Cannistraci, R., Rossi, L., Perra, S., Zerbini, F., & Perseghin, G. (2023) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-023-11739-6 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“The Animal Fluency Test examines verbal category fluency, a component of executive function, as well as other functions such as semantic memory and processing speed [19].”
BackgroundZhong, Q., Sun, W. C., Qin, Y., & Xu, H. (2023) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu15010239 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Non-Linear Association between Folate/Vitamin B12 Status and Cognitive Function in Older Adults
Ding, Z., Luo, L., Guo, S., Shen, Q., Zheng, Y.-Y., & Zhu, S.-M. (2022) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu14122443 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Won, J., Yasmeen Faroqi-shah, A., Callow, D. D., Williams, A. P., Awoyemi, A., Nielson, K. A., & Smith, J. C. (2021) · The Cerebellum · doi:10.1007/s12311-020-01218-3 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Martin, A., Barker, M., Gibson, E., & Robinson, G. (2019) · Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology · doi:10.1093/arclin/acz044 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Jiang, X., Petok, J. R., Howard, D. V., & Howard, J. H. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00103 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“…(McDowd et al., 2011), and studies have found that verbal fluency declines in healthy aging (Elgamal et al., 2011; Stokholm et al., 2013), as well as in Alzheimer’s disease (Henry et al., 2004; Clark et al., 2009) and other neurological disorders (Henry and Beatty, 2006; McDowd et al., 2011).”
Background
- Authors
- Clark, L. J., Gatz, M., Zheng, L., Chen, Y.-L., McCleary, C., & Mack, W. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Alzheimer Disease Research Center, and Department of Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
- Corresponding author
- Mack, Wendy J.
- Venue
- American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease & Other Dementias®
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2009-09-16
- Volume
- 24
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 461-468
- ISSN
- 0888-4897 (ISSN-L)
- 1533-3175
- 1938-2731
- PMC
- PMC2824246
- OpenAlex
- W2058044289
- Cited by
- 318
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 20 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 23 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 14 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 12 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 4.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- American Journal of Alzheimer s Disease & Other Dementias® (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute on Aging (P50-AG05142, P50AG005142)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Historical and Modern Theater Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
- Keywords
- verbal fluency, semantic fluency, phonemic fluency, animal fluency, Alzheimer's disease, preclinical Alzheimer's disease, normal aging, cognitive decline, longitudinal change, cognitive impairment
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Alzheimer Disease, Cognition, Cognition Disorders, Diagnosis, Differential, Female, Follow-Up Studies, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Memory, Neuropsychological Tests, Semantics, Speech Disorders, Prevalence, Multivariate Analysis, Disease Progression, Early Diagnosis
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