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Cited by 368Qualitative Research Methods and ApplicationsQualitative Research Methods and EthicsData Analysis and Archiving

Quotations in Qualitative Studies: Reflections on Constituents, Custom, and Purpose

Open access
Eldh, Ann Catrine, Årestedt, Liselott, Berterö, Carina·2020·International Journal of Qualitative Methods
DOI 10.1177/1609406920969268
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Abstract

Qualitative studies are often found to be accompanied by quotations from interviews or similar data sources. As with any methodological tradition, it is essential to critically explore the general principle of including quotations in scientific papers: what is the purpose and justification for including quotations? Are there standards and, in that case, what are they and what are their scientific positioning? This paper presents an overview of the somewhat diverse guidance found in the literature in reference to the representation of quotations. Yet, both students and scholars use a variety of approaches to quote from their data, ranging from presenting numerous, extensive, and/or comprehensive quotations throughout the results section to the reporting of a few particular quotations to illustrate certain aspects of the findings only. While their function may be described, scientific reasoning for using quotations is scarce. Along with an overview of the scientific background and options for including quotations in qualitative studies, we discuss the consequences of the different epistemological and methodological aspects found in the literature. In conclusion, we argue that there are incentives for promoting a more deliberate employment of references from data; deriving from the human sciences tradition, a corresponding epistemological stance would suggest that quotations preferably apply for illustrating the analysis process and/or findings, while the idea that quotations can be employed to validate findings has limited support. Further critical examination of the application of and justification for including quotations in the reporting of qualitative studies is needed among researchers, journal editors and reviewers.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This methodological reflection reviews guidance on why and how quotations are used in qualitative research and argues that their inclusion is often habitual rather than scientifically justified. The authors propose that quotations are best used deliberately to illustrate the analysis process and/or findings, while support for using quotations as evidence to validate findings is limited.

Key findings

  • The literature offers diverse and sometimes contradictory guidance on quotations: they are often expected as a “gold standard,” can enhance readability and bring content to life, and may illustrate participants’ perspectives, but scientific reasoning for quoting is scarce.
  • The COREQ checklist contains 32 items, two of which concern quotations: whether participant quotations were presented to illustrate themes/findings and whether each quotation was identified, and whether there was consistency between the data presented and the findings.
  • The authors propose two epistemologically grounded uses: quotations to illustrate the data analysis process (descriptive representation; sequential, each analysis phase accompanied by quotations, more detailed, limited modifications, confidentiality protected) and quotations to illustrate findings (interpretative approach; bring text to life, highlight features, avoid cherry-picking outliers, can be placed randomly, modifications may exclude superfluous text).
  • They argue there is limited ontological and epistemological support for using quotations to validate findings; validation is instead accomplished through strategies such as triangulation and cross-checks.

Methods

  • Conceptual/discussion paper, not an empirical study; it presents an overview of literature and reflects on epistemological and methodological aspects of including quotations in qualitative reporting.
  • No data collection, sample, or empirical analysis is reported; the authors discuss selected literature and examples and propose two strategies for quotation use.
  • Main analysis is a critical narrative synthesis of guidance, checklists, and paradigmatic positions, concluding with recommendations for researchers, editors, and reviewers.

Limitations

  • Stated: the origin of including quotations in qualitative research remains uncertain, limited scientific guidance exists, and further critical examination is needed among researchers, journal editors, and reviewers.
  • Stated: the authors note that their examples are “random examples” and that many studies did not equally propose a rationale for presenting quotations.
  • Evident: the paper is not a systematic review and reports no empirical data; its proposals are conceptual and depend on the authors’ interpretive synthesis of selected literature.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/1609406920969268

Cites

39 of 39 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 7 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingreasoning

    From an ontological and epistemological perspective, there is limited support in the contemporary qualitative research literature for the viewpoint that quotations can substantiate a set of findings.

    “the idea that quotations can be employed to validate findings has limited support.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “However, from an ontological and epistemological perspective, we have found limited support for this viewpoint in the contemporary qualitative research literature.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “Given the literature cited in this paper, and thus considering the ontological and epistemological foundations of qualitative research, there is limited support for such claims, that is, that quotations can substantiate a set of findings.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    The scientific literature provides limited guidance concerning quotations in qualitative research.

    “The origin of including quotations in qualitative research remains uncertain, and, so far, limited guidance in the scientific literature concerning quotations is noted.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: It is rare to find an account that justifies the inclusion of quotations or defines the purpose of including them.
  • Findingcitation

    The essential literature of the qualitative traditions provides limited evidence as to the justification for quoting data extracts in qualitative studies.

    “Consequently, the essential literature of the qualitative traditions, such as constructivism, pragmatism, or the more recently recognized realism (Pawson & Tilley, 1997), provides limited evidence as to the justification for quoting data extracts in qualitative studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pawson & Tilley, 1997

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    The 2007 review article became the foundation of the COREQ guidelines, a 32-item checklist used by numerous journals.

    “Subsequently, this review article became the foundation of the COREQ (COnsolidated criteria for REporting Qualitative research) guidelines, a 32-item checklist used by numerous journals.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tong et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Premisecitation

    The 2007 review of checklists used to assess qualitative studies revealed that the most common provisos related to data collection and the validation of findings, that is, the description of how themes were developed and the inclusion of supporting quotations.

    “Yet, a 2007 review of checklists used to assess qualitative studies revealed that the most common provisos related to data collection and the validation of findings, that is to say, the description of how themes were developed and the inclusion of supporting quotations (Tong et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tong et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 26
  • May combine two claims. 6

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Today, a variety of ways to use quotations is observed in the practices of reporting qualitative research.

    “Today, a variety of ways to use quotations is observed in the practices of reporting qualitative research.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Quotations are seemingly applied for several purposes: as evidence, explanation, illustration, impression, representation, and/or to enhance readability.

    “Quotations are seemingly applied for several purposes: as evidence, explanation, illustration, impression, representation, and/or to enhance readability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Some researchers may employ quotations to validate the results of a qualitative analysis.

    “However, some of the random examples do indicate that researchers may employ quotations to validate the results of a qualitative analysis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    COREQ guidance constitutes criteria regarding the effective application of quotations.

    “Even so, guidance provided by, for example, COREQ (Tong et al., 2007) does constitute criteria regarding the effective application of quotations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tong et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    There is ontological and epistemological support for particular use of quotations in qualitative studies.

    “Thus, while the routes discard any proposition of the relevance of employing quotations as evidence, we suggest that there is ontological and epistemological support for particular use of quotations in qualitative studies:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Qualitative studies are often accompanied by quotations from interviews or similar data sources.

    “Qualitative studies are often found to be accompanied by quotations from interviews or similar data sources.”
    • Also stated in: § When Do Quotations Apply and Why-A Scope of the Literature · boosted
      “Presenting authentic citations of what informants have uttered has become the “gold standard” in qualitative studies, and most people who read such papers and reports expect that there will be a number of such quotations; they may even expect a particular type of quotation (Brown, 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brown, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A purposeful application of quotations may further illustrate and thus accredit a qualitative analysis and/or illuminate the findings in qualitative studies.

    “While certain procedures, such as member checking or triangulation, have been proposed, a purposeful application of quotations may further illustrate and thus accredit a qualitative analysis and/or illuminate the findings in qualitative studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Outliers are generally of limited value for an enhanced understanding of the qualitative analysis process and/or the findings.

    “Such “outliers” are generally of limited value for an enhanced understanding of the qualitative analysis process and/or the findings, which rather resembles a shared, conceptual understanding of meaning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The above suggestions challenge a fairly common initiative that different quotations from several informants should be presented to support each category/theme in particular.

    “The above suggestions challenge a fairly common initiative in that different quotations from several informants should be presented to support each category/theme in particular.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The routes discard any proposition of the relevance of employing quotations as evidence.

    “Thus, while the routes discard any proposition of the relevance of employing quotations as evidence, we suggest that there is ontological and epistemological support for particular use of quotations in qualitative studies:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The choice of how many quotations and the extent of the participants' accounts is still a decision that must be made by the researchers, while considering the confidentiality of study informants.

    “However, the choice of how many quotations and the extent of the participants’ accounts is still a decision that must be made by the researchers, while considering the confidentiality of study informants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Two strategies are sustained for the use of quotations, each occupying different epistemological positionings for their use in qualitative studies.

    “We propose that two strategies are sustained for the use of quotations, each occupying different epistemological positionings for their use in qualitative studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Supplementary verification of quotations would bridge the common ambiguity about the rationale for using them.

    “Supplementary verification of quotations would bridge the common ambiguity about the rationale for using them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Consistent use of identifiers that do not reveal identities can aid confidentiality and will also inform the reader as to whether the data set is abundant.

    “Consistent use of identifiers that do not reveal identities can aid this practice and will also inform the reader as to whether the data set is abundant;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Well-founded motives for the use of quotations would sustain future reviews, enabling both increased transparency and methodological advancement.

    “It would also sustain future reviews, enabling both increased transparency and methodological advancement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Well-founded motives for the use of quotations would allow for academic development.

    “Well-founded motives for the use of quotations would allow for academic development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The literature that calls for a more discerning practice could aid in the further establishment of well-founded principles.

    “The literature that we have addressed that calls for a more discerning, rather than common, practice could aid in the further establishment of well-founded principles.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Verbatim quotations can convey a particular experience or statement, but unedited citations can lead to a sense of exposure for an individual, especially if the number of participants in a study is limited.

    “Verbatim quotations can indeed convey a particular experience or statement, but unedited citations can also lead to a sense of exposure for an individual-especially if the number of participants in a study is limited.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A potentially superficial approach may have been taken, neglecting the "if," "why," "how" and "when" queries relating to the use of quotations in qualitative research.

    “Rather, a potentially superficial approach may thereby have been taken, neglecting the “if,” “why,” “how” and “when” queries relating to the use of quotations in qualitative research.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Quotations to demonstrate the analysis are likely to be more detailed than when the purpose is to illustrate various features of a study.

    “In addition, to affirm the analysis process, the quotations are likely to be more detailed than when the purpose is to illustrate the various features of a study, as described below.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A deliberate sample including quotations from most or all of the interviews indicates ample data to sustain the findings.

    “a deliberate sample including quotations from most or all of the interviews indicates ample data to sustain the findings (Denzin & Lincoln, 1998)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Denzin & Lincoln, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The purpose and validity of quotes relies profoundly on the appraisal and skills of individual researchers and/or teams.

    “As the purpose and validity of quotes relies profoundly on the appraisal and skills of individual researchers and/or teams, they must decide whether the quotations inserted into a paper or report are presented verbatim or are edited or condensed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Quoting can have a certain purpose and quotations can operate well, although there is not one but several ways to employ them.

    “Quoting can have a certain purpose and quotations can operate well, although there is not one but several ways to employ them.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    This would support qualitative studies becoming more transparent and compelling to their audiences.

    “This would support qualitative studies becoming more transparent and compelling to their audiences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The use and purpose of quotations in qualitative reporting is commonly not sufficiently purposeful or transparent.

    “However, we suggest that the use and purpose of quotations needs to be more purposeful and transparently described than is commonly seen today.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Many scholars, regardless of their level of experience and expertise, have a somewhat vague idea as to why, how, or when to quote.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Both routes correspond to a philosophical position that reflects the multiple perspectives of human experience.

    “While the ontology of paradigms communicates a scientific worldview, we suggest that both routes correspond to a philosophical position that reflects the multiple perspectives of human experience.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
26 of 26

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    It is rare to find an account that justifies the inclusion of quotations or defines the purpose of including them.

    “Yet, it is rare to find an account that justifies the inclusion of quotations or that defines the purpose of including them.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    COREQ guidance is widely accepted as the norm in reporting qualitative research.

    “While this guidance is widely accepted as the norm in reporting qualitative research, we propose instead that further discussion regarding the practice of enrolling quotations is needed.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many scholars, regardless of their level of experience and expertise, have a somewhat vague idea as to why, how, or when to quote.

    “Hence, it comes as no surprise that many scholars, regardless of their level of experience and expertise, have a somewhat vague idea as to why, how, or when to quote.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The origin of including quotations in qualitative research remains uncertain.

    “The origin of including quotations in qualitative research remains uncertain, and, so far, limited guidance in the scientific literature concerning quotations is noted.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The informants and context are described to further improve credibility and validity, and quotations are used to illustrate the result.

    “The informants and context are described to further improve credibility and validity, and quotations are used to illustrate the result [33].”

    From Generative artificial intelligence in physiotherapy education: great potential amidst challenges- a qualitative interview study (2025) · cites this paper as [33]

    The Conclusions and Discussion (page numbers unavailable) say quotations can illustrate findings or results. The Scientific Claims Vis-à-Vis Quotations section discusses credibility and validity, but does not say that describing informants and context improves them. That part of the cited sentence is unsupported by this paper. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • For narrative approaches, conceptual model development focuses on personal experiences, emotions, and life histories.

    “For narrative approaches, conceptual model development focuses on personal experiences, emotions, and life histories (Eldh et al., 2020).”

    From A Step-by-Step Process of Thematic Analysis to Develop a Conceptual Model in Qualitative Research (2023) · cites this paper as Eldh et al., 2020

    The Discussion and Conclusions (page numbers unavailable) address how quotations can illustrate qualitative analysis and findings. A search for narrative approaches, conceptual model development, emotions, and life histories found no passage addressing the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.72)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Bennett A., 2010, Rethinking social inquiry, 207
  2. Gadamer H.-G., 2013, Truth and method
  3. Glaser B. G., 1978, Theoretical sensitivity
  4. Pawson R., 1997, Realistic evaluation
  5. Ricoeur P., 1992, Oneself as another
  6. The Oxford English Dictionary. (2020). Oxford University Press. June 8, 2020. https://www-oed-com.e.bibl.liu.se/

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Eldh, A. C., Årestedt, L., & Berterö, C.
Affiliations
  • Linköping University (SE)
  • Linnaeus University (SE)
Corresponding author
Eldh, Ann Catrine
ORCID
Venue
International Journal of Qualitative Methods
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2020-01-01
Volume
19
ISSN
1609-4069 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1177/1609406920969268
OpenAlex
W3095098358
Cited by
362
References
39
Citations by year
2026: 60 · 2025: 81 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 22
FWCI
56.08
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • International Journal of Qualitative Methods (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DiVA (Linkoping University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • Uppsala University Publications (Uppsala University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Education › Qualitative Research Methods and Applications
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Qualitative Research Methods and Ethics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Data Analysis and Archiving
Keywords
epistemology of qualitative research, methodological standards, editorial practice

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Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

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