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Cited by 7Criminal Justice and Corrections AnalysisIndigenous Health, Education, and RightsCriminal Justice and Penology

Decolonizing prisons: Indigenized programming and a critique of critical prison studies

Open access
Tetrault, Justin Everett Cobain·2023·Incarceration
DOI 10.1177/26326663231188203PMC PMC13104770
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Abstract

Critical prison studies (CPS) is increasingly influential in scholarly discussions about decolonizing prisons. Proponents of CPS largely oppose the idea that cultural prison programs are decolonial, which include courses teaching Indigenous cultures and colonial history, prisons facilitating spirituality, involving Elders and communities in rehabilitation, and specialized prisons called “healing lodges.” Most CPS scholars writing on the topic disparage these initiatives as assimilationist and thus a weapon of cultural genocide. For these scholars, decolonizing prisons is impossible. CPS arguments against Indigenized programming are premised on abolitionist theory rather than a discernible decolonial method centring the perspectives of Indigenous peoples affected by prisons. I explore the accuracy and utility of CPS scholars’ arguments against Indigenized programming, drawing from 587 interviews with incarcerated men and women detained inside six prisons across Western Canada. Almost 40% of these participants identified as Indigenous. Indigenous interviewees nearly universally praised Indigenized programs for how they can help heal and empower those affected by colonial violence. Participants desired more cultural programming and easier access to such resources. More research is needed on how prisons develop and implement cultural programming, but existing empirical works suggest that these initiatives, while flawed, support the dignity of incarcerated Indigenous peoples. My critique is a call for criminologists writing on Indigenous issues to consider the ambiguity and tensions of decolonial processes and to premise their arguments foremost on methods centring Indigenous peoples affected by incarceration.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This article critiques critical prison studies (CPS) for opposing Indigenized prison programming as assimilationist or genocidal without a discernible decolonial method centring incarcerated Indigenous peoples. Drawing on 587 interviews in six Western Canadian prisons, it finds Indigenous participants nearly universally praised Indigenized programs for healing, cultural connection, and empowerment, while calling for expanded access.

Key findings

  • Among the survey sample of 413 people across four prisons, 39% identified as Indigenous (N = 160); Indigenous women made up 53% of the incarcerated women in the sample (54 women).
  • Indigenous interviewees almost universally praised Indigenized programming—including cultural teachings, ceremony, Elder visits, and Pathways units—for helping them connect to culture, contextualize trauma in colonialism, overcome stigma, and build support networks.
  • Participants’ main criticism was not the programming itself but access barriers: security status, lockdowns, paperwork, and staff racism sometimes prevented access to ceremonial materials, courses, and Elders for weeks or months.
  • The author argues these findings challenge four CPS claims: that programming is imposed, assimilationist/genocidal, evidence of absolute colonial oppression, and that only abolition can be decolonial.

Methods

  • Data come from the University of Alberta Prison Project: semi-structured interviews with 587 incarcerated men and women in six prisons across Western Canada; the author personally conducted over 100 interviews in four provincial and two federal prisons.
  • Demographic surveys were conducted at four of the six prisons; interviews lasted about 90 minutes, some exceeded 4 hours, were audio-recorded with consent, transcribed verbatim, and coded using Nvivo Pro 11 and 12.
  • Analysis draws on Indigenous research methods and decolonial theory, defining decolonization as involving visibility and action, and centring Indigenous participants’ stated experiences with Indigenized resources.

Limitations

  • The paper states that the team did not investigate the specifics of the Indigenization process, and the arguments are premised on participants’ stated experiences; more research is needed on how prisons develop and implement Indigenized resources.
  • Evident from the text: the sample is limited to six prisons in Western Canada, demographic surveys covered only four of the six prisons, and the findings rely on qualitative self-report rather than independent observation of program implementation.
  • Evident from the text: the author was the only Indigenous researcher on the team, though the paper states the team had varied ethnic backgrounds and that racial composition did not appear to meaningfully affect participation or interview dynamics.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/26326663231188203

Cites

41 of 41 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

1 of 20 cited sources checked · 1 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Colonialism is not an event, but a structure of settler societies.

    “As Wolfe (2006) famously argued, colonialism is not an event, but a structure of settler societies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wolfe, 2006 source
  • Findingown data

    Participants expressed frustration that security protocols such as prisoners' security status, unit lockdowns, and bureaucratic barriers prevented them from using basic cultural and religious resources, sometimes for weeks or months at a time.

    “Participants expressed frustration at how security protocols such as prisoners’ security status, unit lockdowns (which suspend programming), and bureaucratic barriers (such as paperwork) prevented them from using basic cultural and religious resources, sometimes for weeks or months at a time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.
  • Findingown data

    Most incarcerated people struggle to access prison courses.

    “Our findings suggest that most incarcerated people struggle to access prison courses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.
  • Findingown data

    Some participants reported that they did not experience their culture because they were raised in the foster system.

    “Some participants recounted how they did not experience their culture due to being raised in the foster system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.
  • Findingown data

    Indigenous peoples tended to be the most marginalized among the sample in relation to victimization rates, poverty and homelessness, problems with substance use, and mental and physical health struggles.

    “Indigenous peoples tended to be the most marginalized among our sample in relation to victimization rates, poverty and homelessness, problems with substance use, and mental and physical health struggles, among other factors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.
  • May combine two claims. 38
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 27

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants desired more cultural programming and easier access to such resources.

    “Participants desired more cultural programming and easier access to such resources.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Rory reported that staff racism sometimes prevents prisoners from using Indigenized resources.

    “Rory was a remanded prisoner and explained how staff racism sometimes prevents prisoners from using Indigenized resources”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants struggling most with their colonial traumas, such as residential school survivors, tended to depend more on Indigenized resources to manage their mental and spiritual health and found security restrictions particularly egregious.

    “Participants struggling the most with their colonial traumas—such as residential school survivors—tended to depend more on Indigenized resources to manage their mental and spiritual health and found security restrictions particularly egregious.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Indigenized teachings manifest in prison in a multitude of forms and no participants framed these dynamics as coercive.

    “Indigenized teachings manifest in prison in a multitude of forms and no participants framed these dynamics as “coercive.””
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.
    • Rests on an assumption: Subjective appreciation of programming by participants indicates that programming is not coercive or imposed.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Indigenized teachings inside a federal prison helped Irene connect with her Indigenous identity and contextualize her personal struggles as stemming from colonialism.

    “She explains how Indigenized teachings inside a federal prison helped her connect with her Indigenous identity and to contextualize her personal struggles as stemming from colonialism”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    25% of Indigenous participants had experienced residential schools or had family members who had gone to these institutions.

    “We interviewed participants who experienced residential schools and whose family members had gone to these institutions (25% of our Indigenous participants).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Rather than being unwanted, imposed, or burdensome, nearly all Indigenous participants praised Indigenized programming and wanted to see these resources expanded.

    “Rather than being unwanted, imposed, or burdensome, nearly all Indigenous participants praised Indigenized programming and wanted to see these resources expanded.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.
    • Rests on an assumption: Subjective appreciation of programming by participants indicates that programming is not coercive or imposed.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Indigenous participants experienced victimization and struggled with substance use at higher rates, and many viewed rehabilitation for drugs or alcohol as essential to their healing.

    “Indigenous participants experienced victimization and struggled with substance use at higher rates and many viewed rehabilitation for drugs or alcohol as essential to their healing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Structured Indigenized programming involves instructors teaching incarcerated people in a classroom setting, typically centering on basic elements of Indigenous cultures and the history of colonialism in Canada, and can involve therapeutic or self-help components connected to cultural traditions.

    “Structured programming involves instructors teaching incarcerated people in a classroom setting. These courses typically center on teaching the basic elements of Indigenous cultures and the history of colonialism in Canada and can involve therapeutic or self-help components that instructors connect to cultural traditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Unstructured Indigenized programming involves incarcerated people practicing cultural traditions alone or with other prisoners.

    “Unstructured programming involves incarcerated people practicing cultural traditions alone or with other prisoners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Participants wanted staff to be better educated on Indigenous cultures and colonization, as staff typically control access to ceremonial materials and supervise cultural practices such as drumming and smudging.

    “Participants also wanted staff to be better educated on Indigenous cultures and colonization, as staff typically control access to ceremonial materials and supervise cultural practices such as drumming and smudging.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Program teachings allowed participants to place their personal struggles into a larger historical and colonial context, helping them overcome feelings of stigma about their Indigenous identity and heritage.

    “Program teachings allowed participants to place their own personal struggles into a larger historical and colonial context, helping them to overcome feelings of stigma pertaining to their Indigenous identity and heritage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The Pathways program is the most substantive form of Indigenized programming available to some participants, involving multiple months in a special living unit with more regular access to all forms of Indigenized programming.

    “Finally, the most substantive form of Indigenized programming available to some of our participants was the “Pathways” program. Incarcerated people in Pathways spend multiple months in a special living unit where they have more regular access to all forms of Indigenized programming.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Julian attributed staff prejudices to a lack of basic knowledge of Indigenous culture and Canadian history.

    “Julian, a 35-year-old remanded Indigenous man, attributed these prejudices to a lack of basic knowledge of Indigenous culture and Canadian history”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Indigenous participants repeatedly reported that Indigenized resources helped them connect to their culture and heritage and overcome stigma by helping them express themselves and feel empowered and proud of their identity.

    “Altogether, Indigenous participants repeatedly informed us that Indigenized resources helped them connect to their culture and heritage and overcome stigma by helping them express themselves and feel empowered and proud of their identity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The great majority of participants struggled with trauma from being victims of sexual and physical violence, and many responded to such experiences by using alcohol or drugs.

    “the great majority of our participants struggled with trauma from being victims of sexual and physical violence, and many responded to such experiences by using alcohol or drugs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Indigenous participants frequently praised Indigenized programming for teaching them Indigenous and colonial history and helping them connect to their culture, often for the first time.

    “Indigenous participants frequently praised the different aspects of Indigenized programming for teaching them Indigenous and colonial history and helping them connect to their culture, often for the first time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Indigenous women made up 53% of the sample population of incarcerated women (54 women), making them the most severely overrepresented racialized group in the study.

    “Indigenous women being the most severely overrepresented racialized group in our study, making up 53% of our sample population of incarcerated women (54 women).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Indigenized programming is structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.

    “Indigenized programming is structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    34% of Indigenous respondents lived on reserves, and 34% had experienced the foster system.

    “Of the Indigenous respondents, 34% lived on reserves, and 34% had experienced the foster system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For other incarcerated men and women, Indigenized resources helped them overcome the stigma they felt about their Indigenous identity and feel proud about their culture and heritage.

    “For other incarcerated men and women, Indigenized resources helped them overcome the stigma they felt about their Indigenous identity and feel proud about their culture and heritage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Many incarcerated Indigenous peoples, especially victims of the Scoops, do not know their precise ethnic or tribal background and consequently find it easy and appealing to identify with a pan-Indigenous identity.

    “It is also the case that many incarcerated Indigenous peoples—especially victims of the Scoops—do not know their precise ethnic or tribal background and consequently find it easy and appealing to identify with a pan-Indigenous identity reflecting Indigenous peoples’ broader historical and cultural significance and their relationship to Canadian colonization.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    What constitutes "prison expansion" in CPS is poorly defined.

    “Moreover, what constitutes “prison expansion” in CPS is poorly defined”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Over the last decade, critical prison studies (CPS) has come to dominate the scholarly discussion on decolonizing prisons.

    “Over the last decade, critical prison studies (CPS) (also called anti-carceral criminology or critical carceral studies) has come to dominate the scholarly discussion 2 on decolonizing prisons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The racial composition of the research team did not appear to meaningfully affect participation rate or interview dynamics.

    “Team members had varied ethnic backgrounds, and the racial composition of the research team did not appear to meaningfully affect our participation rate or the interview dynamics.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    There is minimal research on Canadian prison services generally, and no criteria by which we might deem any such programs to be the "best."

    “There is also minimal research on Canadian prison services generally, and no criteria by which we might deem any such programs to be the “best.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    For nearly all CPS scholars writing on the subject, Canadian prisons cannot be Indigenized or decolonized in any respect.

    “For nearly all CPS scholars writing on the subject, Canadian prisons—understood as inherently and exclusively colonial spaces—cannot be Indigenized or decolonized in any respect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Canadian researchers have been at the forefront of much of this commentary, with many arguing that Indigenized programming is, at best, unproductive and, at worst, genocidal.

    “Canadian researchers have been at the forefront of much of this commentary, with many arguing that Indigenized programming is, at best, unproductive and, at worst, genocidal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    We know remarkably little about how prisons develop and implement Indigenized programming and how incarcerated people experience these initiatives.

    “We also know remarkably little about how prisons develop and implement Indigenized programming and how incarcerated people experience these initiatives.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Marques and Monchalin's (2020) argument that improved programming causes prison expansion is not supported by the one study they cite (Piché et al., 2017), which only shows that prison authorities discuss Indigenized resources when promoting prison construction.

    “First, to support their position, the authors only cite one study by Piché et al. (2017) which shows that prison authorities discuss Indigenized resources when promoting prison construction in Canada. This fact, however, can in no way lead to the conclusion that improved programming causes prison expansion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Piché et al. (2017)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Nearly all CPS critiques of Indigenizing prisons foreground abolitionist theory over decolonial research methods.

    “This is evident in how nearly all CPS’ critiques of Indigenizing prisons foreground abolitionist theory over decolonial research methods.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    What transpires in prison is not absolutely and exclusively colonial: where there are Indigenous peoples, there is agency, meaning-making, and resistance.

    “However, what transpires in prison is not absolutely and exclusively colonial: where there are Indigenous peoples, there is agency, meaning-making, and resistance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Nearly all CPS scholars avoid detailing how their critiques centred the perspectives of Indigenous peoples affected by prisons nor how they weighed Indigenous peoples' diverse opinions about responding to mass incarceration.

    “In other words, nearly all CPS scholars avoid detailing how their critiques centred the perspectives of Indigenous peoples affected by prisons nor how they weighed Indigenous peoples’ diverse opinions about responding to mass incarceration”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    We have anonymized our participants and used pseudonyms throughout all documents.

    “We have anonymized our participants and used pseudonyms throughout all documents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    A limitation of this research is that our team did not investigate the specifics of the Indigenization process.

    “A limitation of this research is that our team did not investigate the specifics of the Indigenization process.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    This project received ethical approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board.

    “This project received ethical approval from the University of Alberta Research Ethics Board.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Prominent CPS arguments against Indigenized resources appeal foremost to the morality of preestablished political commitments, with scholars typically making the circular argument that programming is oppressive because anything related to prisons is inevitably and only oppressive.

    “Instead, prominent CPS arguments against Indigenized resources appeal foremost to the morality of preestablished political commitments, with scholars typically making the circular argument that programming is oppressive because anything related to prisons is inevitably and only oppressive.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    There are more than 630 Indigenous communities representing more than 50 nations and over 70 Indigenous languages in Canada.

    “there are more than 630 Indigenous communities representing more than 50 nations and over 70 Indigenous languages in Canada (Government of Canada, 2017)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Government of Canada, 2017

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A generation of critically inclined students interested in learning about and improving the situation of incarcerated Indigenous peoples will encounter a scholarly literature dominated by works portraying Indigenized resources as "destructive" but minimal empirical research supporting pragmatic programming options that many Indigenous peoples and communities have advocated for.

    “A generation of critically inclined students interested in learning about, and hopefully improving the situation of incarcerated Indigenous peoples, will encounter a scholarly literature dominated by works portraying Indigenized resources as “destructive” but minimal empirical research supporting pragmatic programming options that many Indigenous peoples and communities have advocated for.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    My arguments are premised on our participants' stated experiences with these programs.

    “My arguments are premised on our participants’ stated experiences with these programs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • The authors state this as an assumption: Participants' stated experiences with Indigenized programs are a valid basis for evaluating those programs.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both the TRC and the National Inquiry into MMIWG explicitly advocate for pragmatic policy reforms to mitigate the challenges faced by incarcerated Indigenous people, including therapeutic and healing efforts in prison that CPS scholars often ignore or oppose.

    “Both inquiries explicitly advocate for pragmatic policy reforms to mitigate the challenges faced by incarcerated Indigenous people, including the type of therapeutic and healing efforts in prison that CPS scholars often ignore or oppose.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites TRC, 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites National Inquiry, 2019

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    CPS scholars widely regard Indigenizing prisons as a reformist reform.

    “CPS scholars widely regard Indigenizing prisons as a reformist reform.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    CPS scholars tend to present incarcerated Indigenous peoples as perpetual victims of the prison's colonial oppression, with little room for personal growth, healing, meaning-making, and resistance, a caricature unsupported by history and a view that our participants widely rejected.

    “CPS scholars tend to present incarcerated Indigenous peoples as perpetual victims of the prison's colonial oppression, with little, if any—room for personal growth, healing, meaning-making, and resistance—a caricature unsupported by history and a view that our participants widely rejected.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Most CPS scholars argue or heavily imply that Indigenized programming advances cultural genocide.

    “Instead, most CPS scholars argue (or heavily imply) that Indigenized programming advances cultural genocide.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Incarcerated Indigenous peoples are not eliminated, dead, disappeared, or disposed of.

    “Contrary to the arguments of some CPS scholars, incarcerated Indigenous peoples are not “eliminated,” “dead,” “disappeared,” or “disposed of.””
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The majority of CPS scholars portray the prison as a uniquely and absolutely irredeemable colonial institution that by its very essence cannot be decolonized.

    “the majority of CPS scholars portray the prison as a uniquely and absolutely irredeemable colonial institution that by its very essence cannot be decolonized.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    These CPS scholars do not have a discernable decolonial methodology.

    “Put another way, these CPS scholars do not have a discernable decolonial methodology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Prisons are deeply colonial institutions, but they are not impervious to decolonial efforts.

    “Prisons are deeply colonial institutions, but they are not impervious to decolonial efforts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    CPS scholars' disapproval of reform is evident in the lack of pragmatic policy recommendations related to Indigenized programming.

    “in practice, CPS scholars’ disapproval of reform is evident in the lack of pragmatic policy recommendations related to Indigenized programming.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Incarcerated people are not docile bodies; they have preferences and make choices, resisting some elements of programming while embracing others.

    “Incarcerated people, however, are not “docile bodies”—they have preferences and make choices, resisting some elements of programming while embracing others.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Canada's justice system emphasizes retribution and domination, which inherently undermines Indigenized programming's focus on healing and empowerment.

    “Canada's justice system emphasizes retribution and domination, which inherently undermines Indigenized programming's focus on healing and empowerment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Canadian government has failed to reduce the incarceration rates of Indigenous peoples nor meaningfully transition power to Indigenous communities in justice and healing processes.

    “The Canadian government has failed to reduce the incarceration rates of Indigenous peoples nor meaningfully transition power to Indigenous communities in justice and healing processes (see Zinger, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zinger, 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Most CPS scholars present the decolonial prescription as obvious, absolute, and pre-determined: abolish prisons.

    “most CPS scholars present the decolonial prescription as obvious, absolute, and pre-determined: abolish prisons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Indigenized prison programs support the dignity of incarcerated Indigenous peoples, but realizing the potential of these initiatives requires transitioning into Indigenous-led justice and healing processes beyond prisons.

    “Indigenized prison programs support the dignity of incarcerated Indigenous peoples, but realizing the potential of these initiatives requires transitioning into Indigenous-led justice and healing processes beyond prisons.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Our findings, as well as those of the TRC and National Inquiry, suggest that Indigenized programming is not essentially harmful and the situation is far more complicated than CPS scholars acknowledge.

    “While CPS discourse portrays Indigenized programming as an essentially harmful initiative with little or no redeeming value, our findings—as well as those of the TRC and National Inquiry—suggest that this is not the case and that the situation is far more complicated than such scholars appear willing to acknowledge.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: The TRC and National Inquiry into MMIWG represent legitimate Indigenous perspectives on Indigenized programming.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Existing work centring Indigenous peoples shows that while Indigenized programming is contradictory and flawed, pertinent Indigenous peoples find them invaluable for healing and empowerment, making these programs an Indigenous rights issue and a decolonial effort worth pursuing.

    “Nonetheless, existing work centring Indigenous peoples shows that while Indigenized programming is contradictory and flawed, pertinent Indigenous peoples find them invaluable for healing and empowerment, making these programs an Indigenous rights issue and a decolonial effort worth pursuing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.
    • Rests on an assumption: The TRC and National Inquiry into MMIWG represent legitimate Indigenous perspectives on Indigenized programming.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Like settler societies, prisons are colonial, but can have decolonial elements, however partial or flawed they might be.

    “Like settler societies, prisons are colonial, but can have decolonial elements, however partial or flawed they might be.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
57 of 57

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The modern prison is a Western-colonial invention.

    “given that the modern prison is a Western-colonial invention”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Participants' stated experiences with Indigenized programs are a valid basis for evaluating those programs.

    “My arguments are premised on our participants’ stated experiences with these programs.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Decolonization requires centring Indigenous perspectives and helping identify or address Indigenous peoples' needs and interests.

    “Second, decolonial approaches work with Indigenous peoples to increase their sovereignty, self-determination, and material well-being, which involves centring Indigenous perspectives and helping identify or address their needs and interests.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The interviewed participants’ accounts are representative enough of incarcerated Indigenous peoples more broadly to support general conclusions about Indigenized programming.

    “Indigenous participants almost universally praised Indigenized resources for empowering them personally and collectively.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants’ self-reports accurately reflect their experiences and views.

    “Participants explained how doing ceremony, drumming, and making crafts (such as beadwork and painting) allowed them to express their Indigenous identity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Subjective appreciation of programming by participants indicates that programming is not coercive or imposed.

    “Rather than being unwanted, imposed, or burdensome, nearly all Indigenous participants praised Indigenized programming and wanted to see these resources expanded.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The TRC and National Inquiry into MMIWG represent legitimate Indigenous perspectives on Indigenized programming.

    “our findings—as well as those of the TRC and National Inquiry—suggest that this is not the case”
7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Adema (2018) citations fall outside the referenced chapter

    Minor

    The paper cites Adema (2018) at pages 252 and 262, but its reference list identifies the 2018 work as a chapter spanning pages 45-60. Those citations cannot refer to pages in the listed work.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 10

  1. Adema S, 2012, Left History, 16, 37
  2. Delisle C, 2015, Penal Field, 12
  3. Friede J, 1975, Indigenismo y Aniquilamiento de Indígenas en Colombia
  4. Garcia-Bravo W (2009) Cultural diversity, multiculturalism, and new paradigms in public education in Columbia. PhD Dissertation, Concordia University, Montreal, Quebec.
  5. Lemkin R, 1944, Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation-Analysis of Government-Proposals for Redress, Chapter IX: “Genocide”. [Publications of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of International Law, Washington]
  6. 10.17265/2159-5313/2016.09.003 · DOI · Paper page
  7. Sium A, 2012, Indigeneity, Education, & Society, 1
  8. Solomon A, 1994, Eating Bitterness: A Vision Beyond the Prison Walls: Poems and Essays of Arthur Solomon
  9. Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, 2015, Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada: Calls to Action
  10. Zinger I (2020) Indigenous people in federal custody surpasses 30 percent . https://www.ocibec.gc.ca/cnt/comm/press/press20200121-eng.aspx

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Tetrault, J. E. C.
Affiliations
University of Alberta (CA)
Corresponding author
Tetrault, Justin Everett Cobain
ORCID
Tetrault, Justin Everett Cobain
Venue
Incarceration
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2023-01
Volume
4
Pages
26326663231188203-26326663231188203
ISSN
2632-6663 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1177/26326663231188203
PMC
PMC13104770
OpenAlex
W4385466146
Cited by
7
References
40
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3
FWCI
3.01
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Incarceration (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (435-2017-1051)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
  • Social Sciences › Health › Indigenous Health, Education, and Rights
  • Social Sciences › Law › Criminal Justice and Penology
Keywords
cultural programming, cultural genocide, assimilationism, abolitionism, colonial violence, Indigenous elders, rehabilitation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-30.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-30.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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